Verb phrase

Август 19, 2022

Содержание

2. Verb complementation. What we will consider now is the type(s) of complements that may follow a
3. ____ NP ____ AP ____ PP The verb occurs in the slot indicated by the line,
4. 1. Transitive (or monotransitive), abbreviated [trans], e.g., hit, eat, kill, or break, with the following subcategorization
5. 2. Intransitive, e.g., arrive, cry, laugh, or swim, labeled with the feature [intrans] and with the
6. 3. Ditransitive, abbreviated [ditrans], e.g., give, send, tell, lend, buy, offer, or show, with the following
7. We can write this subcategorization frame more economically as follows: ____ NP {NP, PP[to/for NP]} Note
8. But Recent work in syntax deploys the concept of oblique object; in English, any noun phrase
9. 4. Copulative (or copula), abbreviated [cop], e.g., become, seem, appear, feel, be, grow, or look, and
10. The complement here serves the function of subject complement (sC). (You may know this function by
11. Copula constructions The division between COPULA and NON-COPULA constructions is the topmost one; constructions are divided
12. COPULA CONSTRUCTIONS a. NP Copula AP Fiona is very happy. [COPULA, ASCRIPTIVE] b. NP Copula NP
13. Ascriptive copula clauses are used to ascribe a property to an entity. a. NP Copula AP
14. Complex Transitive 5. Complex Transitive, abbreviated [complex trans], with the following subcategorization frame: ____ NP NP
15. There are two subclasses of verbs in this category: a. nonlocative: ﬁnd, consider, make, think, elect,
16. The complex transitive verb combines the transitive and the copulative structures. The ﬁrst NP is a
17. Note that “be” or some other copula verb can often be inserted between the direct object
18. 6. Prepositional, abbreviated [prep], with the following subcategorization frame: ____ PP He agreed to the terms.
19. In the case with nonlocative verbs, the verb and preposition seem to form a close syntactic
20. 7. Diprepositional, abbreviated [diprep], e.g., confer, talk, consult, with the following subcategorization frame: ____ PP PP
21. Latent objects. One of the difficulties for verb subcategorization in English is that it is sometimes
22. How can you tell, then, when the verb is really transitive with a latent object, and
23. Subject and Predicate In constructing our phrase structure grammar of English, we begin with the initial
24. Note the different structures serving the function of subject in the following sentences: The man could
25. It and there are special kinds of “dummy” subjects called expletives; structurally they ﬁll the position
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Verb complementation.
What we will consider now is the type(s) of complements

that may follow a verb. They determine the (strict) subcategorization of the verb. The particular structure or structures in which a verb can occur can be represented formally in a subcategorization frame:
____ NP ____ AP ____ PP

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NP AP PP
The verb occurs in the slot

indicated by the line, with the possible complement(s) speciﬁed afterwards. Note that only obligatory complements (NPs, APs, and PPs) ﬁgure in the subcategorization of a verb, not the optional PP’s which often follow a verb or verb phrase. Distinguishing obligatory from optional PP’s can often be very difficult. Generally, it is the case that the obligatory complements cannot be omitted without affecting the grammaticality or meaning of the sentence, while the optional PP’s, which are functioning as adverbials, can be omitted or can be moved to the beginning of the sentence.

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1. Transitive (or monotransitive), abbreviated [trans], e.g., hit, eat, kill, or

break, with the following subcategorization frame:
____ NP Reginald broke the vase.
The complement of the verb here is a noun phrase functioning as a direct object (dO). A direct object can also be a subordinate clause:
Vivian wrote that she was unhappy.

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2. Intransitive, e.g., arrive, cry, laugh, or swim, labeled with the

feature [intrans] and with the following subcategorization frame:
____ # The package has arrived.
After the argument, she cried.
With an intransitive verb, no complement is required or allowed. Note, however, that intransitive verbs are frequently followed by optional adverbs (e.g., The package arrived a few minutes ago, The baby cried loudly for ﬁve minutes this morning); these do not affect the verb’s subcategorization.

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3. Ditransitive, abbreviated [ditrans], e.g., give, send, tell, lend, buy, offer,

or show, with the following subcategorization frames:
____ NP1 NP2 Henk sent Olga roses.
or
____ NP2PP[to/for NP1] Henk sent roses to Olga.

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We can write this subcategorization frame more economically as follows:
____ NP

{NP, PP[to/for NP]}
Note that the PP here is not an optional modiﬁer, but an obligatory complement. NP1 serves the function of indirect object (iO), while NP2 serves the function of direct object. An indirect is the goal of the action; it always denotes something which is animate or is conceived of as animate.

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But Recent work in syntax deploys the concept of oblique object;

in English, any noun phrase that is the complement of a preposition is an oblique object, where the prepositional phrase is itself the complement of a verb.
Oblique objects are nouns that are complement to a preposition, as in (spoke) about music and (sent the letter) to the manager. In examples such as gave a present to Bill, with verbs such as GIVE, SHOW and TELL, to Bill was traditionally called the indirect object. Since these are very difﬁcult to distinguish from directional phrases, the notion of indirect object has been abandoned in favour of oblique object but has been kept for the construction with three noun phrases, as in Emma gave Harriet advice.

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4. Copulative (or copula), abbreviated [cop], e.g., become, seem, appear, feel,

be, grow, or look, and with the following subcategorization frame:
____ NP Priya is a chemist.
____ AP Priya seems tired.
____ PP Priya is in a good mood.
Or, more concisely:
____ {NP, AP, PP}

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The complement here serves the function of subject complement (sC). (You

may know this function by one of its other names: predicative nominative, subject(ive) predicative, and so on.) It is important to distinguish an NP serving as direct object from an NP serving as subject complement. A subject complement characterizes the subject: it identiﬁes, locates, or describes the subject, as in Bill is the leader, Bill is in the living room, and Bill is irritable. It expresses either a current state or a resulting state of the subject, as in Bill is rich and Bill became rich. A test distinguishing dO from sC is that the dO can become the subject of a passive sentence, while the sC cannot:
Martina became a lawyer. ⇒ *A lawyer was become by Martina.
Martina saw a lawyer. ⇒ A lawyer was seen by Martina.

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Copula constructions
The division between COPULA and NON-COPULA constructions is the

topmost one; constructions are divided into COPULA and NON-COPULA, then each of these divides into DECLARATIVE and INTERROGATIVE, and so on.

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COPULA CONSTRUCTIONS
a. NP Copula AP Fiona is very happy.
[COPULA,

ASCRIPTIVE]
b. NP Copula NP Fiona is the best student.
[COPULA, EQUATIVE]
c. NP Copula PP Fiona is in Auchtermuchty.
[COPULA, LOCATIVE]

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Ascriptive copula clauses are used to ascribe a property to an

entity.
a. NP Copula AP Fiona is very happy.
[COPULA, ASCRIPTIVE]
In (a), happiness is ascribed to Fiona
Equative copula clauses are used to state that one entity is identical with another entity.
b. NP Copula NP Fiona is the best student.
[COPULA, EQUATIVE]
Speakers use (b) to say, on the assumption that there are two entities Fiona and the best student, that these two entities are one and the same person. Fiona is equated to the best student.
The construction [COPULA, LOCATIVE] is used in order to state where some entity is located.
c. NP Copula PP Fiona is in Auchtermuchty.
[COPULA, LOCATIVE]

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Complex Transitive
5. Complex Transitive, abbreviated [complex trans], with the following subcategorization

frame:
____ NP NP We consider him a fool.
____ NP AP She made him unhappy.
____ NP PP They regard that as the best design.
Or more concisely:
____ NP {NP,AP,PP}

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There are two subclasses of verbs in this category:
a. nonlocative: ﬁnd,

consider, make, think, elect, call, hold, regard (as), take (for), devote (to) ; and
b. locative: hang, put, place, lay, set, touch, shoot, pierce.

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The complex transitive verb combines the transitive and the copulative structures.

The ﬁrst NP is a direct object; the second element is an object complement (oC) (also known as an object(ive) predicative). The object complement characterizes the object in the same way as the subject complement characterizes the subject: it identiﬁes, describes, or locates the object (as in We chose Bill as group leader, We consider him a fool, She laid the baby in the crib), expressing either its current state or resulting state (as in They found him in the kitchen, She made him angry).

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Note that “be” or some other copula verb can often be

inserted between the direct object and the object complement (e.g., I consider him to be a fool, We chose Bill to be group leader, They found him to be in the kitchen). Like the subject complement, too, the object complement cannot usually become the subject of a passive sentence (though the direct object can):
We consider him a fool.*A fool is considered him (by us).
He is considered a fool (by us).

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6. Prepositional, abbreviated [prep], with the following subcategorization frame:
____ PP He

agreed to the terms.
She stood on the ladder.
There are two subclasses of verbs in this category:
a. locative: stand, lie, lean, hang, sit, ﬂow; and
b. nonlocative: agree (to), work (for), depend (on), look (into), refer (to), insist (on), respond (to).

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In the case with nonlocative verbs, the verb and preposition seem

to form a close syntactic and semantic unit; the particular preposition occurring with a verb is idiosyncratic and must be learned. The PP here serves as a complement. To avoid confusion with the OP, it is called a prepositional complement (pC).

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7. Diprepositional, abbreviated [diprep], e.g., confer, talk, consult, with the following
subcategorization

frame:
____ PP PP She argued with him about money.

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Latent objects. One of the difficulties for verb subcategorization in English

is that it is sometimes possible to omit the direct object when it is understood from context, as in the case of He ate being understood as ‘He ate dinner’ in a certain context. In such cases, the object can be understood as being latent.

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How can you tell, then, when the verb is really transitive

with a latent object, and when it is really intransitive? A few tests can be applied to the verbs in question. When the verb has a remarkably different meaning without an object than with an object, then we can assume that it is truly intransitive, not transitive with a latent object:
– The workers struck last month. [intrans]
The worker struck the match. [trans]
– He played outside all afternoon. [intrans]
He played the piano all afternoon. [trans]
If the object is irrelevant, then the verb is likewise intransitive since the object is not necessary at all:
Groucho smokes. [intrans]
I was reading all the time. [intrans]
Wyatt left yesterday. [intrans]

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Subject and Predicate
In constructing our phrase structure grammar of English, we

begin with the initial symbol S=sentence. We all have an intuitive idea of what counts as a sentence. It is a tenet of both traditional and generative grammar that S consists of two constituents: the subject (Su) and the predicate (pred). The subject is variously deﬁned as the topic, the actor, or that which is spoken about. The predicate is deﬁned as the comment, the action, or that which is said about the subject; it says something true or false about the subject.

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Note the different structures serving the function of subject in the

following sentences:
The man could open the door. TruZes are a kind of fungus.
The house on the corner is for sale.
She went to see who was at the door.
The rain and fog dissipated. There are ﬁve cats in the hall.
The ﬁlm that I saw last night was depressing. It is raining.
It is possible that Alfred will know the answer.

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It and there are special kinds of “dummy” subjects called expletives;

structurally they ﬁll the position of subject but are lexically empty. There are two kinds of meaningless it, the impersonal it in It is raining, where there is no personal subject, and the anticipatory it in It is possible…, where the real subject that Alfred will know the answer occurs at the end of the sentence and it ﬁlls the normal subject position.