Risk Return and Project Decisions

Сентябрь 10, 2022

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Risk Return and Project Decisions

Содержание

2. What’s the Big Idea? Earlier chapters on capital budgeting focused on the appropriate size and timing
3. 12.1 The Cost of Equity Capital Firm with excess cash Shareholder’s Terminal Value Shareholder invests in
4. The Cost of Equity From the firm’s perspective, the expected return is the Cost of Equity
5. Example Suppose the stock of Stansfield Enterprises, a publisher of PowerPoint presentations, has a beta of
6. Example (continued) Suppose Stansfield Enterprises is evaluating the following non-mutually exclusive projects. Each costs $100 and
7. Using the SML to Estimate the Risk-Adjusted Discount Rate for Projects An all-equity firm should accept
8. 12.2 Estimation of Beta: Measuring Market Risk Market Portfolio - Portfolio of all assets in the
9. 12.2 Estimation of Beta Theoretically, the calculation of beta is straightforward: Problems Betas may vary over
10. Stability of Beta Most analysts argue that betas are generally stable for firms remaining in the
11. Using an Industry Beta It is frequently argued that one can better estimate a firm’s beta
12. 12.3 Determinants of Beta Business Risk Cyclicity of Revenues Operating Leverage Financial Risk Financial Leverage
13. Cyclicality of Revenues Highly cyclical stocks have high betas. Empirical evidence suggests that retailers and automotive
14. Operating Leverage The degree of operating leverage measures how sensitive a firm (or project) is to
15. Operating Leverage Volume $ Fixed costs Total costs Δ EBIT Δ Volume Operating leverage increases as
16. Financial Leverage and Beta Operating leverage refers to the sensitivity to the firm’s fixed costs of
17. Financial Leverage and Beta: Example Consider Grand Sport, Inc., which is currently all-equity and has a
18. 12.4 Extensions of the Basic Model The Firm versus the Project The Cost of Capital with
19. The Firm versus the Project Any project’s cost of capital depends on the use to which
20. Capital Budgeting & Project Risk A firm that uses one discount rate for all projects may
21. Capital Budgeting & Project Risk Suppose the Conglomerate Company has a cost of capital, based on
22. Capital Budgeting & Project Risk Project IRR Firm’s risk (beta) r = 4% + 0.6×(14% –
23. The Cost of Capital with Debt The Weighted Average Cost of Capital is given by: It
24. 12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital We aim at estimating Bombardier’s cost of capital, as of
25. 12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital Bombardier’s beta is 0.79; the (current) risk-free rate is 4.07%,
26. 12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital The yield on the company’s 6.6% 29 Nov 04 bond
27. 12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital To calculate the cost of capital, we need to estimate
28. 12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital Bombardier’s WACC as of June 15, 2001, is given by:
29. 12.6 Reducing the Cost of Capital What is Liquidity? Liquidity, Expected Returns, and the Cost of
30. What is Liquidity? The idea that the expected return on a stock and the firm’s cost
31. Liquidity, Expected Returns, and the Cost of Capital The cost of trading an illiquid stock reduces
32. Liquidity and the Cost of Capital Cost of Capital Liquidity An increase in liquidity, i.e., a
33. Liquidity and Adverse Selection There are a number of factors that determine the liquidity of a
34. What the Corporation Can Do The corporation has an incentive to lower trading costs since this
35. What the Corporation Can Do Companies can also facilitate stock purchases through the Internet. Direct stock
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What’s the Big Idea?
Earlier chapters on capital budgeting focused on the

appropriate size and timing of cash flows.
This chapter discusses the appropriate discount rate when cash flows are risky.

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12.1 The Cost of Equity Capital
Firm with excess cash
Shareholder’s Terminal Value
Shareholder invests

in financial asset

Because stockholders can reinvest the dividend in risky financial assets, the expected return on a capital-budgeting project should be at least as great as the expected return on a financial asset of comparable risk.

A firm with excess cash can either pay a dividend or make a capital investment

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The Cost of Equity
From the firm’s perspective, the expected return is

the Cost of Equity Capital:

To estimate a firm’s cost of equity capital, we need to know three things:

The risk-free rate, RF

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Example
Suppose the stock of Stansfield Enterprises, a publisher of PowerPoint presentations,

has a beta of 2.5. The firm is 100-percent equity financed.
Assume a risk-free rate of 5-percent and a market risk premium of 10-percent.
What is the appropriate discount rate for an expansion of this firm?

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Example (continued)
Suppose Stansfield Enterprises is evaluating the following non-mutually exclusive

projects. Each costs $100 and lasts one year.

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Using the SML to Estimate the Risk-Adjusted Discount Rate for Projects

An all-equity firm should accept a project whose IRR exceeds the cost of equity capital and reject projects whose IRRs fall short of the cost of capital.

Project
IRR

Firm’s risk (beta)

Good projects

Bad projects

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12.2 Estimation of Beta: Measuring Market Risk
Market Portfolio - Portfolio of

all assets in the economy. In practice a broad stock market index, such as the TSE 300 index, is used to represent the market.
Beta - Sensitivity of a stock’s return to the return on the market portfolio.

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12.2 Estimation of Beta
Theoretically, the calculation of beta is straightforward:
Problems
Betas may

vary over time.
The sample size may be inadequate.
Betas are influenced by changing financial leverage and business risk.
Solutions
Problems 1 and 2 (above) can be moderated by more sophisticated statistical techniques.
Problem 3 can be lessened by adjusting for changes in business and financial risk.
Look at average beta estimates of comparable firms in the industry.

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Stability of Beta
Most analysts argue that betas are generally stable for

firms remaining in the same industry.
That’s not to say that a firm’s beta can’t change.
Changes in product line
Changes in technology
Deregulation
Changes in financial leverage

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Using an Industry Beta
It is frequently argued that one can better

estimate a firm’s beta by involving the whole industry.
If you believe that the operations of the firm are similar to the operations of the rest of the industry, you should use the industry beta.
If you believe that the operations of the firm are fundamentally different from the operations of the rest of the industry, you should use the firm’s beta.
Don’t forget about adjustments for financial leverage.

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12.3 Determinants of Beta
Business Risk
Cyclicity of Revenues
Operating Leverage
Financial Risk
Financial Leverage

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Cyclicality of Revenues
Highly cyclical stocks have high betas.
Empirical evidence suggests that

retailers and automotive firms fluctuate with the business cycle.
Transportation firms and utilities are less dependent upon the business cycle.
Note that cyclicality is not the same as variability—stocks with high standard deviations need not have high betas.
Movie studios have revenues that are variable, depending upon whether they produce “hits” or “flops,” but their revenues are not especially dependent upon the business cycle.

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Operating Leverage
The degree of operating leverage measures how sensitive a firm

(or project) is to its fixed costs.
Operating leverage increases as fixed costs rise and variable costs fall.
Operating leverage magnifies the effect of cyclicity on beta.
The degree of operating leverage is given by:

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Operating Leverage
Volume
$
Fixed costs
Total costs
Δ EBIT
Δ Volume
Operating leverage increases as fixed costs

rise and variable costs fall.

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Financial Leverage and Beta
Operating leverage refers to the sensitivity to the

firm’s fixed costs of production.
Financial leverage is the sensitivity of a firm’s fixed costs of financing.
The relationship between the betas of the firm’s debt, equity, and assets is given by:

Financial leverage always increases the equity beta relative to the asset beta.

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Financial Leverage and Beta: Example
Consider Grand Sport, Inc., which is currently

all-equity and has a beta of 0.90.
The firm has decided to lever up to a capital structure of 1 part debt to 1 part equity.
Since the firm will remain in the same industry, its asset beta should remain 0.90.
However, assuming a zero beta for its debt, its equity beta would become twice as large:

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12.4 Extensions of the Basic Model
The Firm versus the Project
The Cost

of Capital with Debt

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The Firm versus the Project
Any project’s cost of capital depends on

the use to which the capital is being put—not the source.
Therefore, it depends on the risk of the project and not the risk of the company.

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Capital Budgeting & Project Risk
A firm that uses one discount rate

for all projects may over time increase the risk of the firm while decreasing its value.

Project IRR

Firm’s risk (beta)

Hurdle rate

The SML can tell us why:

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Capital Budgeting & Project Risk
Suppose the Conglomerate Company has a cost

of capital, based on the CAPM, of 17%. The risk-free rate is 4%, the market risk premium is 10%, and the firm’s beta is 1.3.
17% = 4% + 1.3 × [14% – 4%]
This is a breakdown of the company’s investment projects:

1/3 Automotive retailer β = 2.0
1/3 Computer Hard Drive Mfr. β = 1.3
1/3 Electric Utility β = 0.6

average β of assets = 1.3

When evaluating a new electrical generation investment, which cost of capital should be used?

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Capital Budgeting & Project Risk
Project
IRR
Firm’s risk (beta)
r = 4% +

0.6×(14% – 4% ) = 10%
10% reflects the opportunity cost of capital on an investment in electrical generation, given the unique risk of the project.

Investments in hard drives or auto retailing should have higher discount rates.

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The Cost of Capital with Debt
The Weighted Average Cost of Capital

is given by:

It is because interest expense is tax-deductible that we multiply the last term by (1- TC)

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12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital
We aim at estimating Bombardier’s cost

of capital, as of June 15, 2001.
First, we estimate the cost of equity and the cost of debt.
We estimate an equity beta to estimate the cost of equity.
We can often estimate the cost of debt by observing the YTM of the firm’s debt.
Second, we determine the WACC by weighting these two costs appropriately.

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12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital
Bombardier’s beta is 0.79; the (current)

risk-free rate is 4.07%, and the (historical) market risk premium is 6.89%.
Thus the cost of equity capital is

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12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital
The yield on the company’s 6.6%

29 Nov 04 bond is 5.73% and the firm is in the 40% marginal tax rate.
Thus the cost of debt is

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12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital
To calculate the cost of capital,

we need to estimate the value weights for equity and debt:

We simplify, and combine preferred stock with common stock:

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12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of Capital
Bombardier’s WACC as of June 15,

2001, is given by:

8.53-percent is Bombardier’s cost of capital. It should be used to discount any project where one believes that the project’s risk is equal to the risk of the firm as a whole, and the project has the same leverage as the firm as a whole.

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12.6 Reducing the Cost of Capital
What is Liquidity?
Liquidity, Expected Returns, and

the Cost of Capital
Liquidity and Adverse Selection
What the Corporation Can Do

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What is Liquidity?
The idea that the expected return on a stock

and the firm’s cost of capital are positively related to risk is fundamental.
Recently a number of academics have argued that the expected return on a stock and the firm’s cost of capital are negatively related to the liquidity of the firm’s shares as well.
The trading costs of holding a firm’s shares include brokerage fees, the bid-ask spread, and market impact costs.

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Liquidity, Expected Returns, and the Cost of Capital
The cost of trading

an illiquid stock reduces the total return that an investor receives.
Investors thus will demand a high expected return when investing in stocks with high trading costs.
This high expected return implies a high cost of capital to the firm.

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Liquidity and the Cost of Capital
Cost of Capital
Liquidity
An increase in liquidity,

i.e., a reduction in trading costs, lowers a firm’s cost of capital.

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Liquidity and Adverse Selection
There are a number of factors that determine

the liquidity of a stock.
One of these factors is adverse selection.
This refers to the notion that traders with better information can take advantage of specialists and other traders who have less information.
The greater the heterogeneity of information, the wider the bid-ask spreads, and the higher the required return on equity.

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What the Corporation Can Do
The corporation has an incentive to lower

trading costs since this would result in a lower cost of capital.
A stock split would increase the liquidity of the shares.
A stock split would also reduce the adverse selection costs thereby lowering bid-ask spreads.
This idea is a new one and empirical evidence is not yet in.

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What the Corporation Can Do
Companies can also facilitate stock purchases through

the Internet.
Direct stock purchase plans and dividend reinvestment plans handled on-line allow small investors the opportunity to buy securities cheaply.
The companies can also disclose more information, especially to security analysts, to narrow the gap between informed and uninformed traders. This should reduce spreads.

Risk Return and Project Decisions

Содержание

What’s the Big Idea?Earlier chapters on capital budgeting focused on the

12.1 The Cost of Equity CapitalFirm with excess cashShareholder’s Terminal ValueShareholder invests

The Cost of EquityFrom the firm’s perspective, the expected return is

ExampleSuppose the stock of Stansfield Enterprises, a publisher of PowerPoint presentations,

Example (continued) Suppose Stansfield Enterprises is evaluating the following non-mutually exclusive

Using the SML to Estimate the Risk-Adjusted Discount Rate for Projects

12.2 Estimation of Beta: Measuring Market RiskMarket Portfolio - Portfolio of

12.2 Estimation of BetaTheoretically, the calculation of beta is straightforward:ProblemsBetas may

Stability of BetaMost analysts argue that betas are generally stable for

Using an Industry BetaIt is frequently argued that one can better

12.3 Determinants of BetaBusiness RiskCyclicity of RevenuesOperating LeverageFinancial RiskFinancial Leverage

Cyclicality of RevenuesHighly cyclical stocks have high betas.Empirical evidence suggests that

Operating LeverageThe degree of operating leverage measures how sensitive a firm

Operating LeverageVolume$Fixed costsTotal costsΔ EBITΔ VolumeOperating leverage increases as fixed costs

Financial Leverage and BetaOperating leverage refers to the sensitivity to the

Financial Leverage and Beta: ExampleConsider Grand Sport, Inc., which is currently

12.4 Extensions of the Basic ModelThe Firm versus the ProjectThe Cost

The Firm versus the ProjectAny project’s cost of capital depends on

Capital Budgeting & Project RiskA firm that uses one discount rate

Capital Budgeting & Project RiskSuppose the Conglomerate Company has a cost

Capital Budgeting & Project RiskProject IRRFirm’s risk (beta)r = 4% +

The Cost of Capital with DebtThe Weighted Average Cost of Capital

12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of CapitalWe aim at estimating Bombardier’s cost

12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of CapitalBombardier’s beta is 0.79; the (current)

12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of CapitalThe yield on the company’s 6.6%

12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of CapitalTo calculate the cost of capital,

12.5 Estimating Bombardier’s Cost of CapitalBombardier’s WACC as of June 15,

12.6 Reducing the Cost of CapitalWhat is Liquidity?Liquidity, Expected Returns, and

What is Liquidity?The idea that the expected return on a stock

Liquidity, Expected Returns, and the Cost of CapitalThe cost of trading

Liquidity and the Cost of CapitalCost of CapitalLiquidityAn increase in liquidity,

Liquidity and Adverse SelectionThere are a number of factors that determine

What the Corporation Can DoThe corporation has an incentive to lower

What the Corporation Can DoCompanies can also facilitate stock purchases through

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