Lecture clause and sentence

Август 20, 2022

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Lecture clause and sentence

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2. The Major Properties of Clauses The examples (1): (1) a. Wickham met with Lydia. b. Miss
3. i Each clause contains a ﬁnite verb; that is, a verb marked for tense. ii In
4. iv Each clause has mood. Mood has to do with two sets of distinctions. First, there
5. Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik (1985), A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
6. (III) imperatives (IV) exclamatives Associated with these four sentence types are four classes of discourse functions:
7. (d ) exclamations are primarily used to express the extent to which the speaker is impressed
8. Directives with a subject It is intuitively clear that the meaning of a directive implies that
9. iv Each clause has mood. Mood has to do with two sets of distinctions. First, there
10. (1) a. Wickham met with Lydia. b. Miss Bates chattered on for hours. v Both allow
11. vi Clauses describe situations, the participants in them (for example, Agents carrying out actions on Patients,
12. vii Both can be the ﬁrst contribution to a discourse, whether spoken or written. Clearly, this
13. Of course, these phrases and clauses occur in texts, but not as the ﬁrst contribution. The
14. Main and Subordinate Clauses Writers, whether novelists or people writing personal letters to family and friends,
15. Depending on what types of clause are combined, two types of multi-clause sentence are distinguished. Compound
16. In (2a), the clauses Captain Benwick married Louisa Hayter and Captain Wentworth married Anne Elliott are
17. Subordinate Clauses Complex sentences consist of a main clause and one or more other clauses subordinate
18. Complement clauses Examples of complement clauses are given in (3a, b). (3) a. Elizabeth regretted that
19. The contemporary label ‘complement clause’ reﬂects the relationship between the clauses and the verb of the
20. The complement clauses in (3) occur to the right of the verbs in the main clauses,
21. The skeleton of the sentence in (4) is [ ] dismayed Captain Wentworth. The square brackets
22. There is one more property of complement clauses; they can modify a noun, as in (5).
23. Other examples of noun complement clauses are given in (6), that the committee be abolished and
24. Relative clauses Complement clauses modify verbs as in (3) and (4) and nouns as in (6);
25. Examples of relative clauses (7): (7) a. The cottage which Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small.
26. In (7a The cottage which Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small), the relative clause which Mrs
27. in (7c The book which Marianne was reading contained poems by Cowper) the relative clause which
28. In certain circumstances, the WH word or that can be omitted, as in The building we
29. The term ‘relative’ goes back to the Roman grammarians, who called the Latin equivalent of which,
30. Adverbial clauses The name ‘adverbial’ suggests that adverbial clauses modify verbs; but they modify whole clauses,
31. (8) a. Reason Because Marianne loved Willoughby, she refused to believe that he had deserted her.
32. b. Time When Fanny returned, she found Tom Bertram very ill. The adverbial clause of time
33. c. Concession Although Mr D’Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet he married Elizabeth. The adverbial clause of concession
34. d. Manner Henry changed his plans as the mood took him. The adverbial clause of manner
35. e. Condition If Emma had left Hartﬁeld, Mr Woodhouse would have been unhappy. I n (8e),
36. Complementisers and subordinating conjunctions One important point remains to be made about subordinate clauses (in English).
37. In grammars from before, say, 1965, the words introducing complement clauses and adverbial clauses were generally
38. Since 1965 or so, the term ‘complementiser’ has been used in one of the major theories
39. OXFORD DICTIONARY complementizer (British complementiser) Grammar A word or morpheme that marks an embedded clause as
40. A problem is posed by the words that introduce relative clauses. Who, whom and which are
41. The WH words can be preceded by prepositions, as in the ﬁre at which Mr Woodhouse
42. Recognising clauses There are reliable rules of thumb for recognising the different types of clause. Some
43. Rules of thumb For any given ﬁnite subordinate clause: A. Does it modify another clause? If
44. B. Does it modify a verb? If it does, it is a (VERB) COMPLEMENT CLAUSE. For
45. C. Does it modify a noun? If it does, it could be a RELATIVE CLAUSE or
46. C(ii). Is the subordinate clause introduced by that? If it is, it could be either a
47. (15). COMPLEMENT CLAUSE a. We like the idea that the city centre will be pedestrianised. b.
48. Note that there are some examples that go counter to C(ii). In the question why she
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The Major Properties of Clauses
The examples (1):
(1) a. Wickham met with

Lydia.
b. Miss Bates chattered on for hours.
Examples (1a, b) are sentences. Examples (1a, b) are also instances of main clauses. What are the major properties of these main clauses?

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i Each clause contains a ﬁnite verb; that is, a verb

marked for tense.
ii In each clause, the ﬁnite verb is accompanied by its complements and adjuncts.
iii Each clause is marked for aspect, and the aspect can be changed: compare
Wickham was meeting with Lydia as opposed to Wickham eloped with Lydia.

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iv Each clause has mood. Mood has to do with two

sets of distinctions. First, there are the distinctions between making statements (Wickham met with Lydia), asking questions (Did Wickham meet with Lydia?) and issuing commands (Meet with Lydia!).

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Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik (1985), A

Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, London: Longman.

Sentence types and discourse functions
Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic types differentiated by their form. Their use correlates largely with different discourse functions:
declaratives
interrogatives

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(III) imperatives
(IV) exclamatives
Associated with these four sentence types are

four classes of discourse functions:
(a) statements are primarily used to convey information.
(b ) questions are primarily used to seek information on a specific point
(c ) directives are primarily used to instruct somebody to do something

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(d ) exclamations are primarily used to express the extent to

which the speaker is impressed by something

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Directives with a subject
It is intuitively clear that the meaning

of a directive implies that the omitted subject is the 2nd person pronoun you. The implication can be demonstrated by the occurrence of you as subject of a following tag question (Be quiet, will you?), by the occurrence of only yourself or yourselves as the reflexive (Behave yourself or Behave yourselves, not * Behave myself, etc), and by the occurrence of only the emphatic possessive your own (Use your own comb, not *Use her own comb, etc);

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iv Each clause has mood. Mood has to do with two

sets of distinctions. First, there are the distinctions between making statements (Wickham met with Lydia), asking questions (Did Wickham meet with Lydia?) and issuing commands (Meet with Lydia!).
The second set of distinctions has to do with whether the speaker or writer presents an event as possible (He may have met with Lydia) or as necessary (He must have met with Lydia) or as a fact (He did meet with Lydia.)

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(1) a. Wickham met with Lydia. b. Miss Bates chattered on for

hours.

v Both allow certain changes of syntax to reﬂect changes of focus or emphasis, for example, Never will Wickham meet with Lydia.

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vi Clauses describe situations, the participants in them (for example, Agents

carrying out actions on Patients, as in Frank [Agent] persuaded Jane [Patient] to keep the secret, and the circumstances in which they take place, as in Frank Churchill was in Hartﬁeld [place] in June [time]). (The term ‘circumstances’ may seem strange but is a technical term which now has a long history.)

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vii Both can be the ﬁrst contribution to a discourse, whether

spoken or written. Clearly, this rests on presuppositions about the audience knowing who Wickham, Lydia and so on are, but what is important for present purposes is that phrases such as with Lydia, handed his hat to the servant and chattered on cannot be the ﬁrst contribution to a normal English text, nor can clauses such as which she bought last week or although it is cold.

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Of course, these phrases and clauses occur in texts, but not

as the ﬁrst contribution. The phrases can only be responses, as in Who did Wickham meet with? – with Lydia, or just Lydia, and clauses such as although it is cold must be combined with main clauses.

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Main and Subordinate Clauses
Writers, whether novelists or people writing personal letters

to family and friends, put clauses together into sentences, and it is for this activity that main clauses and the different types of subordinate clause are essential. Some sentences in texts (text sentences, corresponding to text clauses) resemble the examples in (1) in consisting of a single main clause, but many consist of several clauses.

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Depending on what types of clause are combined, two types of

multi-clause sentence are distinguished. Compound sentences consist of two or more clauses joined by conjunctions. Examples are given in (2).
(2) a. Captain Benwick married Louisa Hayter and Captain Wentworth married Anne Elliott.
b. Henry Crawford loved Fanny but Fanny loved Edmund.
c. Mr Bingley became tired of Jane or Mr D’Arcy persuaded Mr Bingley to go to London.

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In (2a), the clauses Captain Benwick married Louisa Hayter and Captain

Wentworth married Anne Elliott are conjoined by and; in (2b) the clauses Henry Crawford loved Fanny and Fanny loved Edmund are conjoined by but; and in (2c) the clauses Mr Bingley became tired of Jane and Mr D’Arcy persuaded Mr Bingley to go to London are conjoined by or. In (2a–c), the conjoined clauses are all main clauses.

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Subordinate Clauses
Complex sentences consist of a main clause and one or

more other clauses subordinate to it. That is, one clause, the main clause, is preeminent in a complex sentence and the other clauses, the subordinate clauses, are subject to certain limitations.
The major types of subordinate clauses: complement clause, relative clause and adverbial clause.

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Complement clauses
Examples of complement clauses are given in (3a, b).
(3) a.

Elizabeth regretted that she had met Wickham.
b. Catherine feared that the Abbey was haunted.
These clauses were traditionally called ‘noun clauses’, because they occur in slots in the main clause that can be occupied by ordinary noun phrases – Elizabeth regretted her actions and Catherine feared the General’s temper.

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The contemporary label ‘complement clause’ reﬂects the relationship between the clauses

and the verb of the main clause: Elizabeth regretted and Catherine feared are incomplete pieces of syntax which require a modiﬁer, either a noun phrase as in the immediately preceding examples or a clause, as in (3).

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The complement clauses in (3) occur to the right of the

verbs in the main clauses, but complement clauses also occur to the left of verbs, as in (4).
(4) That Anne was in conversation with Mr Elliott dismayed Captain Wentworth.

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The skeleton of the sentence in (4) is
[ ] dismayed

Captain Wentworth.
The square brackets marking the slot waiting for some constituent. The slot could be ﬁlled by a noun phrase such as Her words but in (4) is ﬁlled by the complement clause That Anne was in conversation with Mr Elliott.

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There is one more property of complement clauses; they can modify

a noun, as in (5).
(5) Fanny was delighted by the idea that she could subscribe to a library.
The sequence Fanny was delighted by the idea is a complete clause. The additional that she could subscribe to a library conveys the content of the idea. It is not required to complete the syntax, but it is not a relative clause and has been given the label ‘complement clause’ because it ﬁlls out the meaning of the word idea.

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Other examples of noun complement clauses are given in (6), that

the committee be abolished and that we would visit Glasgow today.
(6) a. Who thought up the proposal that the committee be abolished?
b. There was a plan that we would visit Glasgow today but the weather is terrible.

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Relative clauses
Complement clauses modify verbs as in (3) and (4) and

nouns as in (6); relative clauses modify nouns. In older descriptions, relative clauses are called adjective clauses, reﬂecting the fact that adjectives also modify nouns. Of course, in English they do not occur in the same position as adjectives, since adjectives typically precede the noun in a noun phrase while relative clauses follow it.

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Examples of relative clauses (7):
(7) a. The cottage which Mrs Dashwood

accepted was rather small.
b. The gentleman who saved Marianne was Willoughby.
c. The book which Marianne was reading contained poems by Cowper.
d. The building that we liked is in Thornton Lacey.

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In (7a The cottage which Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small),

the relative clause which Mrs Dashwood accepted modiﬁes the noun cottage;
in (7b The gentleman who saved Marianne was Willoughby) the relative clause who saved Marianne modiﬁes the noun gentleman;

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in (7c The book which Marianne was reading contained poems by

Cowper) the relative clause which Marianne was reading modiﬁes the noun book;
and in (7d The building that we liked is in Thornton Lacey) the relative clause that we liked modiﬁes the noun building.

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In certain circumstances, the WH word or that can be omitted,

as in The building we liked is in Thornton Lacey, with the relative clause we liked, or The book Marianne was reading contained poems by Cowper, with the relative clause Marianne was reading.

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The term ‘relative’ goes back to the Roman grammarians, who called

the Latin equivalent of which, who and so on relative pronouns because they referred back to a noun. Refer derives from the Latin verb referre, a very irregular verb whose past participle passive is relatus, from which ‘related’ derives. Note that although the that clause in (7d) is called a relative clause, that is not a relative pronoun but a conjunction.

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Adverbial clauses
The name ‘adverbial’ suggests that adverbial clauses modify verbs; but

they modify whole clauses, as shown by the examples in (8). Their other key property is that they are adjuncts, since they are typically optional constituents in sentences. They are traditionally classiﬁed according to their meaning, for example adverbial clauses of reason, time, concession, manner or condition, as illustrated below.

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(8) a. Reason
Because Marianne loved Willoughby, she refused to believe that

he had deserted her.
The adverbial clause of reason in (8a), Because Marianne loved Willoughby, gives the reason (or the writer uses it to give the reason) why Marianne refused to believe that Willoughby had gone. It modiﬁes the main clause she refused to believe that he had deserted her.

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b. Time
When Fanny returned, she found Tom Bertram very ill.
The adverbial

clause of time in (8b), When Fanny returned, gives the time at which another event happened, namely her ﬁnding Tom Bertram ill. It modiﬁes the main clause she found Tom Bertram very ill.

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c. Concession
Although Mr D’Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet he married Elizabeth.
The adverbial

clause of concession in (8c), Although Mr D’Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet, conveys a concession. The writer says, as it were, ‘OK. I concede that he didn’t like Mrs Bennet. Nonetheless he married Elizabeth.’ The adverbial clause modiﬁes the main clause he married Elizabeth.
Concession - The action of conceding or granting something.

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d. Manner
Henry changed his plans as the mood took him.
The adverbial

clause of manner in (8d), as the mood took him, describes the manner in which Henry changed his plans and modiﬁes the main clause Henry changed his plans.

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e. Condition
If Emma had left Hartﬁeld, Mr Woodhouse would have been

unhappy. I
n (8e), the adverbial clause of condition If Emma had left Hartﬁeld conveys the circumstances or conditions under which a particular situation would have arisen. The situation is Mr Woodhouse being unhappy, and the writer declares that this situation did not actually come about but would have done; Emma’s leaving Hartﬁeld would have brought it about. The crucial fact is the relationship between the two situations; Mr Woodhouse’s being unhappy is conditional upon Emma’s leaving Hartﬁeld. The adverbial clause of condition modiﬁes the main clause Mr Woodhouse would have been unhappy.

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Complementisers and subordinating conjunctions
One important point remains to be made about

subordinate clauses (in English). Most of the subordinate clauses you will come across in written texts are introduced by a special word.

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In grammars from before, say, 1965, the words introducing complement clauses

and adverbial clauses were generally known as subordinating conjunctions, and words such as and or but were known as coordinating conjunctions.

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Since 1965 or so, the term ‘complementiser’ has been used in

one of the major theories of syntax not just for subordinating conjunctions introducing complement clauses but for all subordinating conjunctions. This usage has spread to other theories of syntax and to grammars of English and other languages.

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OXFORD DICTIONARY
complementizer
(British complementiser)
Grammar A word or morpheme that marks an embedded clause as

functioning as a complement, typically a subordinating conjunction or infinitival to.

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A problem is posed by the words that introduce relative clauses.

Who, whom and which are pronouns that also function as subordinating conjunctions.
That they are pronouns is indicated by the who/whom distinction parallel to he/him and so on, and the contrast between who and which, parallel to the contrast between he/she and it. (The contrast between who and whom is disappearing from English. It is only used regularly in the most formal and carefully edited texts.)

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The WH words can be preceded by prepositions, as in the

ﬁre at which Mr Woodhouse sat. The WH words will sometimes be referred to as relative pronouns and sometimes as complementisers. Relative clauses are also introduced by that. This word does not change (in technical terms, is invariable) and cannot be preceded by a preposition – *the ﬁre at that Mr Woodhouse sat. It is not a pronoun but merely a subordinating conjunction or complementiser.

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Recognising clauses
There are reliable rules of thumb for recognising the different

types of clause. Some of the rules have to do with constituent structure or the complementiser, but most of them exploit the concept of modiﬁcation.

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Rules of thumb
For any given ﬁnite subordinate clause:
A. Does it modify

another clause? If it does, it is an ADVERBIAL CLAUSE.
For example, in (10) the clause in italics modiﬁes the entire clause in roman type. It establishes a time for the entire situation of leaving the furniture behind and is an adverbial clause of time.
(10) When we sell the house, we’ll probably leave most of the furniture.

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B. Does it modify a verb? If it does, it is

a (VERB) COMPLEMENT CLAUSE.
For example, in (11) the clause in italics modiﬁes the verb reported. Indeed, the clause A motorist has reported is incomplete without the complement clause.
(11) A motorist has reported that the road is blocked by snow at Soutra Hill.
NB: Verb complement clauses function as subject or object of a clause.

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C. Does it modify a noun? If it does, it could

be a RELATIVE CLAUSE or a COMPLEMENT CLAUSE.
C(i) Is the subordinate clause introduced by a WH word such as who, which, where, or by a prepositional phrase such as in which? If it is, it is a relative clause.
For example, in (12) and (13) the clauses in italics are relative clauses.
(12) The Labrador ate all the food which we left on the kitchen table.
(13) Show me the folder in which you stored the documents.

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C(ii). Is the subordinate clause introduced by that? If it is,

it could be either a relative clause or a complement clause. If it is a relative clause, that can be replaced by which and so on, as in (14). If it is a complement clause, that cannot be replaced by a WH word, as shown by (15).
(14) RELATIVE CLAUSE
a. I like the book that you gave me.
b. I like the book which you gave me.

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(15). COMPLEMENT CLAUSE
a. We like the idea that the city centre

will be pedestrianised.
b. *We like the idea which the city centre will be pedestrianised.

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Note that there are some examples that go counter to C(ii).

In the question why she bothered phoning, the reason why they refused and the problem where to leave our furniture, the nouns question, reason and problem are followed by WH clauses, but these clauses are complements. Other, more formal, variants are the question of why she bothered phoning and the problem of where to leave our furniture. In the latter examples the nouns question and problem are linked to the WH clause by the preposition of. Relative clauses are never linked to nouns in this way. We will treat these apparent counter-examples as ﬁxed phrases, since a very limited number of nouns are modiﬁed by WH complement clauses.