The sentence: functional aspect. Actual and pragmatic syntax

Содержание

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Functionalism in linguistics Vilem Mathesius (1882-1945) Prague School linguists (1926-1945) "the

Functionalism in linguistics

Vilem Mathesius (1882-1945)
Prague School linguists (1926-1945)
"the phonological, grammatical

and
semantic structures of a language are
determined by the functions they
have to perform in the societies in
which they operate"
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Functionalism has become associated with Russian linguists: A.V.Bondarko, N.A.Slusareva, T.S.Sorokina, G.A.Zolotova, G.A.Veikhman

Functionalism has become associated with

Russian linguists:
A.V.Bondarko, N.A.Slusareva, T.S.Sorokina, G.A.Zolotova, G.A.Veikhman

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Two ways of the functional side of the sentence to study

Two ways of the functional side of the sentence

to study

the functions of the sentence components within a sentence - "actual syntax", or the study of "the actual aspect of the sentence";
It reflects internal functions of sentence components.
2. to study the function of the sentence as a whole in speech - "pragmatic syntax“, or "the pragmatic aspect of the sentence".
It reflects the external function of the sentence.
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Actual aspect of the sentence. Theme and rheme. Any sentence conveys

Actual aspect of the sentence. Theme and rheme.

Any sentence conveys some

information structurally and semantically expressed by its components (individual pieces).
The individual pieces of information should be given the right emphasis and put in the right order (Лич, Свартвик).
The basis for studying the communicative function of the sentence is the information it conveys, units of information and their arrangement / organization.
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The theory of sentence division The actual division of the sentence

The theory of sentence division

The actual division of the sentence (Vachek,

Dahl, Блох) emphasizes the division of the sentence into constituents in actual speech.
2. The functional sentence perspective (Danes, Mathcsius, Halliday) stresses the functional goal of the sentence in the process of communication.
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The functional structure of the sentence "information structure" (Halliday, Quirk et

The functional structure of the sentence

"information structure" (Halliday, Quirk et

al.),
"theme" and "rheme“ (widesparead),
"topic-comment" (Hockett, Палмер),
"topic-focus" (Kверк,Лич),
"given-new information" (Halliday).
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The notions of ‘theme’ and ‘rheme’ "theme“ - Greek root [the]

The notions of ‘theme’ and ‘rheme’

"theme“ - Greek root [the] "to

set", or "to establish", and means "that which is set or established".
"rheme" is derived from the root [rhe] "to say" or "to tell", and means "that which is said or told' (about that which was set or established beforehand).
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Theme and rheme – logical categories of subject and predicate In

Theme and rheme – logical categories of subject and predicate
In

logic the categories of subject and predicate are analyzed as units of certain forms of thinking (proposition).
In linguistics the categories of theme and rheme express the significance of sentence parts in terms of their informative role in the sentence (Блox).
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The information structure of the sentence The theme - given information,

The information structure of the sentence

The theme - given information,

i.e. information already supplied by the context. (the initial position).
The rheme - new information for the sake of which the sentence has been uttered or written (at the end of the sentence).
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Information structure of the sentence

Information structure of the sentence

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Features of theme in English they express given information, which is

Features of theme in English

they express given information, which is already

known from the context.
they are placed in the initial position in the sentence,
they coincide with the group of the subject.
- unmarked themes.
The theme is something other than the subject (marked):
Talent (T), Mr.Micawber has;
money (T), Mr.Micawber has not.
The rheme: It is Charles (R) who went to Paris.
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Functional stylistics The rheme of the sentence in oral speech (actual

Functional stylistics

The rheme of the sentence in oral speech (actual communication)

is marked by intonation and sentence stress.
The rheme of the sentence in written speech (virtual communication) is taken out of context and may seem unmarked: Mary is fond of music.
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Means of sentence stress any sentence performs its communicative function in

Means of sentence stress

any sentence performs its communicative function in a

wider context, which actualizes or marks the rheme of the sentence in a certain way:
Mary I is fond of music (as an answer to the question "Who is fond of music? ");
Mary | is fond of music (as a contradiction to "Mary hates music ");
Mary is fond of music (as a correction of "Mary is fond of poetry");
Mary is fond of music (as a contradiction to "Mary is not fond of music ").
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English has fixed word order - a definite and permanent place

English has fixed word order

- a definite and permanent place

is assigned to every part of the sentence.
Modern English has a system of special means to show that a word or a phrase corresponds either to the theme or to the rheme of the sentence.
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Means of marking the theme Ways to mark the theme in

Means of marking the theme

Ways to mark the theme in the

English sentence:
Syntactic means.
Morphosyntactic means.
Lexicogrammatical means.
Lexical means.
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Syntactic means (changes in the fixed word order) The theme of

Syntactic means (changes in the fixed word order)

The theme of the

sentence - object, the adverbial modifier or the predicate (fronted):
object: His face \ I am not fond of, but his character \ I despise .
adverbial modifier: Willingly \ he'll never do it.
predicative: Rich \ I may be.
predicate: Followed | five minutes of acute misery.
If we change the word order the themes will turn into rhemes. These constructions are mainly confined to rhetorical speech.
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Morphosyntactic means (definite article) It is used to identify the referent

Morphosyntactic means (definite article)

It is used to identify the referent of

the noun, to show that the object has already been mentioned and, thus, expresses the "given" information:
The delegation \ was met by a group of students.
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Lexicogrammatical means (personal pronouns, pro-verbs, pro-adjectives, pro-adverbs and pro-conjunctions), Proforms refer

Lexicogrammatical means (personal pronouns, pro-verbs, pro-adjectives, pro-adverbs and pro-conjunctions),

Proforms refer back

to something already stated:
The child ran into the road. He \ was hit by a car./
/John came early, and so did Fred./
/ He told them about the job he had left. Such information | was just what they needed./
/ She got pregnant. Therefore he \ was unable to avoid an unwelcome marriage.
Loose parenthesis:
I’ve invited Andy, Bob and Mark. As for Stephen, I \ don't care if I never see him again in my life.
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Lexical means (proper names) presuppose that the person has already been

Lexical means (proper names)

presuppose that the person has already been introduced:


(*His name is Bill). Bill | is a student.
_____________________________________
The theme need not something known in advance.
In many sentences it is already familiar.
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The theme sometimes is something mentioned for the first time and

The theme

sometimes is something mentioned for the first time and yet

it is not the information center.
In this case it is the starting point of the sentence, not the point of its completion (the opening sentences in the story:
Marshall Zebatinsky felt foolish.
Jehan Shuman was used to dealing with men in authority.
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Opening sentences: opinions differ No theme - the whole of each

Opening sentences: opinions differ

No theme - the whole of each sentence

represents the rheme (Veikhman).
The theme is represented by proper names as the starting point of communication (Ильиш).
Some implicit introductory information in every story preceeds the first sentence and represents the theme (Khomutova):
(*I am going to tell you about Marshall Zebatinsky.) Marshall Zebatinsky | felt foolish.
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Means of marking the rheme Rheme of the sentence is: the

Means of marking the rheme

Rheme of the sentence is:
the information

center (Слюсарева),
nformation focus (Лич, Свартвик),
comment (Палмер),
point of completion of the sentence (Kверк).
the nucleus of new information: He | was speaking to me, not to you (Mathesius, Kверк).
the group of the predicate or VP (Chafe, Halliday)
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Different ways of marking the rheme Phonological means. Lexical means. Morphosyntactic

Different ways of marking the rheme

Phonological means.
Lexical means.
Morphosyntactic means (indefinite

article, passive voice).
Syntactic means (contrastive complexes, cleft complexes, sentences with emphatic do, one-member sentences, inversion of the subject and predicate)
Non-linguistic means (fonts: bold, italics, regular, Roman, etc.)
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Phonological means (intonation and logical stress) Different theme-rheme models in speech:

Phonological means (intonation and logical stress)

Different theme-rheme models in speech:


Mary \ is fond of music (as an answer to the question "Who is fond of music?");
Mary | is fond of music (as a contradiction to "Mary hates music");
Mary is fond of \ music (as a correction of "Mary is fond of poetry");
Mary is fond of music (as a contradiction to "Mary is not fond of music").
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Lexical means Such as intensifying particles only, even, so, almost, at

Lexical means

Such as intensifying particles only, even, so, almost, at

least, etc.:
Even a child | could do this.
Only George | could make a mistake like that.
Almost all | liked her.
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Morphosyntactic means (&) Indefinite article - object is referred to a

Morphosyntactic means (&)

Indefinite article - object is referred to a certain

class & expresses new information:
The door opened | and an old man (R) | came into the room (T). – There is an old man in the room.
Passive voice makes it possible to place new information:
The vase (T) | was broken by Uncle George (R). Compare with Uncle George (T) | broke the vase (R)
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Syntactic means Contrastive complexes attract the listener's attention to the most

Syntactic means

Contrastive complexes attract the listener's attention to the most

important information, i.e. information focus:
The dress | is meant for your sister, not for you!
He | works at a factory, not at a bank.
Cleft sentences are emphatic sentences of the type "It is (was) ... who/that...":
It was Charles who went to Paris. It is to Paris that Charles went.
It is by train that he went to Paris.
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Sentences with emphatic do and other auxiliaries: (*/ thought John worked

Sentences with emphatic do and other auxiliaries:
(*/ thought John worked

hard) He did work hard.
(*Why haven't you had a bath?) I have had a bath.
(*Look for your shoes.) I am looking for them.
One-member sentences:
Never mind.
What a wonderful world!
A nice summer day.
Look!
These sentences are rhematic, as they express only new information, which cannot be parsed.
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Elliptical sentences have undergone thematic reduction and contain mostly new information

Elliptical sentences have undergone thematic reduction and contain mostly new information

(rheme):
Your name is? - Marvin.
How is she? - Sleeping.
What are you doing today? - Nothing.
Such elliptical sentences are contextually conditioned.
Inversion of the subject and predicate:
Here comes (T) | the bus (R). "Go away!" \ said (T) | the child (R).
There is a book in the cupboard.
There is a man in the room. (The theme may be treated as cleft in such cases).
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The functional model of the sentence: Different approaches Instead of the

The functional model of the sentence: Different approaches

Instead of the two

categories of theme and rheme, there should be three, five and even six units.
Jan Firbas put forward a trichotomic division of the sentence into theme, rheme and transition (Firbas).
The Russian linguist Gregory Veikhman offers a tri-, penta-, and hexapartition of the sentence, the last two being more detailed variations of tripartition (Veikhman).
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Functional model of the sentence

Functional model of the sentence

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Pragmatic aspect of the sentence Speech-act theory Pragmatic aspect studies functions

Pragmatic aspect of the sentence Speech-act theory

Pragmatic aspect studies functions of the

sentence as a whole in the process of communication.
Pragmatics - the study of the rules and principles that govern language in use.
Natural-language philosophy, or speech-act theory (J. Austin and J.Searle).
A declarative sentence is always used to describe truly or falsely some state of affairs or some fact.
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John Langshaw Austin (26 March 1911 – 8 February 1960) British

John Langshaw Austin (26 March 1911 – 8 February 1960) British philosopher of

language and leading proponent of ordinary language philosophy, perhaps best known for developing the theory of speech acts.

John Rogers Searle 
(born July 31, 1932) American philosopher  and currently the Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley.  

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J.Austin Declarative sentences do not describe, report, or state anything. The

J.Austin

Declarative sentences do not describe, report, or state anything. The utterance

is the action itself -> performatives, or performative utterances:
I do, as uttered at a marriage ceremony;
I name this ship Queen Elisabeth, as uttered by the appropriate person while smashing a bottle against the stem of the ship;
I give... my watch to my brother, as written in a will;
I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow and the like.
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Performatives clearly marked as performatives by containing within them a verb

Performatives

clearly marked as performatives by containing within them a verb

which stands for the action being performed :
I do = I am doing (taking the man to be my lawful husband),
I name = I am naming,
I bet = I am betting, etc.
performatives, which do not contain performative verbs:
I warn you that there is a dog/bull/fire.
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Explicit performatives vs. Implicit (primary) performatives The explicit performatives had developed

Explicit performatives vs. Implicit (primary) performatives

The explicit performatives had developed from

the implicit performatives.
Any primary performative is expandable into a sentence with a verb in the 1st person singular indicative or the 2nd- or 3rd-person singular indicative passive.
The speech act theory distinguishes between speech acts involving locution, illocution, and perlocution.
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J. Austin segregates the speech act itself into three component acts

J. Austin segregates the speech act itself into three component acts

A

locutionary act (локутивный акт) involves just the uttering of a sentence with sense and reference.
An illocutionary act (иллокутивный акт) is the act performed in uttering the sentence with a certain communicative intention.
A perlocutionary act (перлокутивный акт) is the consequential effect of an utterance on an interlocutor, such as what is achieved by saying something.
=> total speech situation.
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The speech act – the center of the study of language

The speech act – the center of the study of language

J.Searle:

the basic unit of human linguistic communication is the illocutionary act.
Classes of speech acts:
representatives (statements, conclusions, boasts, etc),
directives (requests, orders, challenges, etc.),
commissives (promises, menaces),
expressives (thanks, congratulations),
declarations (arguments, replies, assumptions).
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Pragmatic study of the sentence Pragmatics - the study of human

Pragmatic study of the sentence

Pragmatics - the study of human communication

in general.
Pragmatic syntax studies the sentence (the utterance) - the basic unit of communication.
Every sentence is correlated with the communicative intention of the speaker, e.g.:
"I'll come “ - communicative intention of the speaker may be a statement, a promise, a warning, a threat, etc.
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Proposition – the pragmatic model of the sentence It reflects the

Proposition – the pragmatic model of the sentence

It reflects the

communicative intention of the speaker.
The proposition differs by their pragmatic component,
"Come at once!"may be
an order, a request {please, intonation),
a threat (or I'll show you a thing or two!),
a warning (or you '11 miss the show), etc.
The decisive criterion for assigning a sentence to a specific pragmatic type - the character of its pragmatic component.
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Pragmatic types of sentences Constatives. Directives: Injunctive sentences (orders); Requestive sentences

Pragmatic types of sentences

Constatives.
Directives:
Injunctive sentences (orders);
Requestive sentences (requests);
3. Questions.
Promises and

menaces.
Performatives.
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Constatives – sentences, which constate: The Earth rotates. We live in

Constatives – sentences, which constate:


The Earth rotates.
We

live in Russia.
Novosibirsk is my native town.
The communicative intention of constatives is correlated with the formal characteristics of the sentence.
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Directives – cause the listener to act: "Get out!", "Don't tell

Directives – cause the listener to act:

"Get out!",
"Don't tell anybody

about it!"
Directive sentences are subdivided into:
injunctive sentences (or orders): Will you tell nobody about it?
requestive sentences (or requests): Bring me some chalk, please.
They are distinguished by their intonation and the use of "please" and "Let's" for requests.
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Questions - interrogative sentences in their traditional treatment: What is your

Questions - interrogative sentences in their traditional treatment:

What is your

name?
Where are you from?
How old are you?
A common feature - the purpose of causing the listener to act.
Questions presuppose a verbal response,
Directive sentences produce a response which is an action.
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Promises and menaces (threats) statements: I'll come tomorrow (promise). I'll show

Promises and menaces (threats)

statements: I'll come tomorrow (promise). I'll show

you a thing or two (menace).
Used in the first person and refer to the future (subject is agentive, the predicate expresses an action).
The second person as the subject sometimes occurs in sentences expressing promises and menaces (the subject is never agentive): You '11 get this chance -> You '11 be given this chance.
The third person as the subject occurs only if the realization of the event described in the sentence depends on the speaker: He '11 do this -> *I'll make him do this --> */ promise you he'll do this.
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