Lecture 3 Morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian words

Июль 24, 2022

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Lecture 3 Morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian words

Содержание

2. Lecture 3 Morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian words Contrast is the occurance of different elements
3. Whatever mankind creates in the way of civilization is based on forms. There are forms of
4. Plan 1. The word as a fundamental unit of the language 1.1. Some general problems of
5. Ф APPROACHES TO DEFINITION the most complex problem in the analysis of linguistic structure In typologically
6. Linguistic unit Any unit can be considered unit of the language on condition it: possesses external
7. Linguistic unit Can separate sounds cannot be considered units of the language? Is [c] in сонце
8. fundamental assumption each linguistic unit has a constant and specific meaning Two possible main directions of
9. the connection between the linguistic forms and their meanings Each combination of signaling units is arbitrarily
10. the definition should indicate the most essential characteristic features of the notion expressed by the term,
11. the notion of the “word in general” In Ferdinand de Saussure’s opinion „the notion of the
12. O.I.Smirnitskiy Though in different languages words can be singled out of the stream of speech differently
13. syntactic criterion Dionisius Frakiyskiy: the word is the smallest part of the sentence. With different modifications
14. semantic-logical criterion W.Humboldt, Е.Zivers, D.Kudriavskyy identified the sentence with the logical statement and considered the smallest
15. semantic-phonological criterion A word is an articulate sound-symbol in its aspect of denoting something which is
16. syntactic-semantic criterion “one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated “meaning” into which the sentence
17. A. Meillet combines the semantic, phonological and grammatical criteria and advances a formula which underlies many
18. important features of the word The word is a dialectical unity of form and content. The
19. A linguistic form which is never spoken alone is a bound form, all others are free
20. complex form In any complex form, each constituent is said to accompany other constituents. The constituent
21. Morpheme A linguistic form which bears no partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to any other form is a
22. morpheme A morpheme can be described phonetically, since it consists of one or more phonemes. e.g.
23. sememe It is the morpheme that is the smallest meaningful unit of form. The meaning of
24. lexicon Since every complex form is made up entirely of morphemes, a complete list of morphemes
25. L. Bloomfield A. Secondary words, containing free forms: 1. Compound words, containing more than one free
26. L. Bloomfield B. Primary words, not containing a free form: 1. Derived primary words, containing more
27. the role of morphemes According to the role morphemes play in constructing words, morphemes are subdivided
28. Stem and root When functional affix is stripped from the word, what remains is a stem
29. Types of stems In other cases, however, an affix can be added to a larger unit
30. Combinability of stems Stems are combined with definite affixes and their combinability or valency depends on
31. Semi-affixes Sometimes root morphemes can come close to affixes when their meaning is weakened like: 1)
32. Inflexional vs derivational Functional affixes convey grammatical meaning. They build different forms of one and the
33. Inflexional vs derivational Lexical derivatives make up a derivational or lexical paradigm. Thus, for instance, from
34. Three criteria Three criteria are commonly used to help distinguish between inflexional and derivational affixes. 1)
35. Inflexion
36. derivation
37. A second property of inflexional affixes has to do with the order in which they are
38. A third criterion A third criterion for distinguishing between inflexional and derivational affixes has to do
39. Morphological analysis The theoretical foundations of word analysis in terms of its morphological structure apply both
40. Derivational affixes 1. Suffixes - realize their meaning only in connection with the root morpheme. For
41. Derivational affixes 2. Prefixes - differ from derivational suffixes because they are added to the whole
42. Functional affixes form-creating (формотворчi) and word-changing (словозмiннi). Form-creating affixes differ from derivational as they are combined
43. flection or ending expresses the connections of words with other words in word-combinations or sentences. Types
44. M.P.Ivchenko I. Non-derived words: 1. Non-derived words consisting of the root: тепер, тут, там, дуже, мало,
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Lecture 3
Morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian words
Contrast is the occurance

of different elements
to create interest

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Whatever mankind creates in the way of civilization is based on

forms. There are forms of art, literature, forms of social life etc., and it is these which are characteristic of a certain structural system.
Hans Marchand

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Plan
1. The word as a fundamental unit of the language
1.1.

Some general problems of the theory of the word
1.2. Criteria of the definition
2. Morphemes, free and bound forms
3. Aims and principles of morphemic analysis
4. Contrastive analysis of the morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian
word.

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Ф APPROACHES TO DEFINITION
the most complex problem in the analysis of linguistic

structure
In typologically different groups of languages the criteria employed in establishing the definition of word are of different types
each group of languages constitutes a separate system with its own patterns of formation and own types of linguistic units.

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Linguistic unit
Any unit can be considered unit of the language on

condition it:
possesses external (sound) form and semantic content,
is not created in the process of speech but used as something already existing and only reproduced in speech

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Linguistic unit
Can separate sounds cannot be considered units of the language?
Is

[c] in сонце a linguistic unit?

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fundamental assumption
each linguistic unit has a constant and specific meaning
Two

possible main directions of linguistic research:
phonetics - we study the speech event without reference to its meaning
Semantics - we study the relation of the event to the features of meaning

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the connection between the linguistic forms and their meanings
Each combination

of signaling units is arbitrarily assigned to some features of the practical world.
Linguistic study must start from the form not from the meaning.
Each linguistic form has a constant and definite meaning, different from the meaning of any other linguistic form in the same language.
If the forms are different their meanings are also different.

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the definition
should indicate the most essential characteristic features of the

notion expressed by the term, including the features by which this notion is distinguished from other similar notions.
For instance, in defining the word one must distinguish it from other linguistic units, such as the phoneme, the morpheme, or the word-combination

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the notion of the “word in general”
In Ferdinand de Saussure’s opinion

„the notion of the word is not compatible with our idea of a concrete language unit”
Sharl Balli also considered this
notion one of the most ambiguous
occurring in linguistics

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O.I.Smirnitskiy
Though in different languages words can be singled out of the

stream of speech differently and that’s why it may be difficult to suggest the definition common for all languages but still it is not impossible.
As O.I.Smirnitskiy remarked that the versatility of peculiarities of different languages cannot prevent us from defining the word as the linguistic unit in general, because despite this versatility there are features which all words possess, great as the deviations from typical cases may be

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syntactic criterion
Dionisius Frakiyskiy: the word is the smallest part

of the sentence.
With different modifications this criterion has been applied by a lot of scientists. Henry Sweet defined the word as “a minimum sentence” and Leonard Bloomfield as “minimum free form”.

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semantic-logical criterion
W.Humboldt, Е.Zivers, D.Kudriavskyy
identified the sentence with the logical statement and

considered the smallest part of the sentence - the word - the sign of a separate notion
psychological criterion
the word is as the linguistic equivalent of a separate concept

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semantic-phonological criterion
A word is an articulate sound-symbol in its aspect

of denoting something which is spoken about (A.H.Gardiner)
semantic criterion
connected discourse, if analyzed from the semantic point of view, “will fall into a certain number of meaningful segments which are ultimately composed of meaningful units. These meaningful units are termed words” (S. Ulmann)

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syntactic-semantic criterion
“one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated

“meaning” into which the sentence resolves itself” (Edward Sapir)

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A. Meillet
combines the semantic, phonological and grammatical criteria and advances

a formula which underlies many subsequent definitions, both abroad and in our country: “A word is an association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment”

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important features of the word
The word is a dialectical unity

of form and content.
The word is internally stable (in terms of the order of the component morphemes).
The word is the minimum significant unit capable of functioning alone and characterized by positional mobility (permutable with other words in the sentence).
This makes the basis for the opposition between the word and the phoneme, and the word and the morpheme. The phoneme and the morpheme cannot function otherwise than in the word

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A linguistic form which is never spoken alone is a bound

form, all others are free forms.
Some linguistic forms bear partial phonetic-semantic resemblances to other forms: e.g. John ran, John fell, Bill ran, Bill fell; Johnny, Billy; playing, dancing; blackberry, cranberry, strawberry.
A linguistic form which bears a partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to some other linguistic form, is a complex form.

Free, bound and complex forms

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complex form
In any complex form, each constituent is said to accompany

other constituents.
The constituent forms in our example above:
John, ran, Bill, fell, play, dance, black, berry, straw, cran- (unique constituent in cranberry),
-y (bound-form constituent in Johnny, Billy),
-ing (bound-form constituent in playing, dancing).

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Morpheme
A linguistic form which bears no partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to

any other form is a simple form or morpheme. Thus, play, dance, cran-, -y, -ing are morphemes.
The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe - form and -eme. The Greek suffix
-eme has been adopted by linguists to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.

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morpheme
A morpheme can be described phonetically, since it consists of one

or more phonemes. e.g. the morpheme pin bears a phonetic resemblance to other morphemes, such as pig, pen, tin, ten. On the basis of these resemblances it can be analyzed and described in terms of three phonemes, but, since these resemblances are not connected with resemblances of meaning, we cannot attribute any meaning to the phonemes.

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sememe
It is the morpheme that is the smallest meaningful unit of

form. The meaning of a morpheme is a sememe.
The linguists assume that each sememe is a constant and definite unit of meaning, different from all other meanings in the language.

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lexicon
Since every complex form is made up entirely of morphemes, a

complete list of morphemes would account for all the phonetic forms of a language.
The total stock of morphemes in a language is its lexicon.
However, if we knew the lexicon of a language, and had a reasonably accurate knowledge of each sememe, we might still fail to understand the forms of this language. Every utterance contains some significant features that are not accounted for by the lexicon.

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L. Bloomfield
A. Secondary words, containing free forms:
1. Compound words,

containing more than one free form: door-knob, wild-animal-tamer. The included free forms are the members of the compound word: in our examples, the members are the words door, knob, tamer, and the phrase wild animal.
2. Derived secondary words, containing one free form: boyish, old-maidish. The included free form is called the underlying form; in our examples the underlying forms are the word boy and the phrase old maid.

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L. Bloomfield
B. Primary words, not containing a free form:
1.

Derived primary words, containing more than one bound form: re-ceive, de-ceive, con-ceive, re-tain, de-tain, con-tain.
2. Morpheme-words, consisting of a single (free) morpheme: man, boy, cut, run, red, big.

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the role of morphemes
According to the role morphemes play in constructing

words, morphemes are subdivided into roots and affixes ( lat. affixus - прикрiплений).
The latter are further subdivided, according to their position, into prefixes, suffixes and infixes, and according to their function and meaning, into derivational and functional affixes, the latter also called outer formatives. (The term was suggested by E.Nida as contrasted to inner formatives which is equivalent to our term derivational affixes.)

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Stem and root
When functional affix is stripped from the word, what

remains is a stem (or a base).
The stem expresses the lexical meaning. In many cases, the base is also the root. The principles of singling out stems and roots are different. Roots are semantic cores of words. Stems are parts of words directly connected with inflectional affixes, thus singled out on structural principle.
Root and stem can coincide but they should be viewed from different angles. In books, for example the element to which the affix -s is added corresponds to the word’s root.

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Types of stems
In other cases, however, an affix can be added

to a larger unit than a root.
This happens in words such as blackened, in which the past tense affix -ed is added to the verbal stem blacken - a unit consisting of the root morpheme black and the suffix -en.
Thus stems may differ structurally, they may be root stems (work -er), derived stems (beauti-ful -ly) and compound stems (long-hair -ed).

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Combinability of stems
Stems are combined with definite affixes and their combinability

or valency depends on several reasons:
grammatical category of stems, e.g. some suffixes can be added only to nouns (adjectives, verbs etc.),
semantic content of stems and affixes, e.g. stems negative in meaning cannot tackle prefixes of negation,
phonetic peculiarities of stems and affixes, e.g. some stems ending in lip consonants take suffixes with initial vowel, e.g. dist-ance.

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Semi-affixes
Sometimes root morphemes can come close to affixes when their

meaning is weakened like:
1) -man in seaman, postman; -люб in книголюб, правдолюб;
2) tele- in telescope, telephone or –graph in phono-graph, telegraph. Such morphemes are sometimes called semi-affixes.
O.Smirnitskyy views such cases as specific root morphemes which can be used only in compounds and come close either to suffixal or prefixal morphemes

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Inflexional vs derivational
Functional affixes convey grammatical meaning. They build different forms

of one and the same word. Complete sets of all the various forms of a word when considered as inflectional patterns, such as declentions or conjugations, are termed paradigms. An inflectional paradigm is therefore defined as the system of grammatical forms characteristic of a word. e.g. near, nearer, nearest; son, sons, son’s, sons’.

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Inflexional vs derivational
Lexical derivatives make up a derivational or lexical paradigm.

Thus, for instance, from the word love a number of derivative words can be generated: love, lovely, loveliness, loveless, lover, loving, lovingly, lovable, beloved.

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Three criteria
Three criteria are commonly used to help distinguish between inflexional

and derivational affixes.
1) Inflexion does not change either the part of speech or the type of meaning found in the word to which it applies

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Inflexion

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derivation

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A second property of inflexional affixes has to do with the

order in which they are combined with a stem relative to derivational affixes.

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A third criterion
A third criterion for distinguishing between inflexional and derivational

affixes has to do with productivity, the relative freedom with which they can combine with stems of the appropriate category. Inflexional affixes typically have relatively few exceptions. The suffix -s, for example, can combine with virtually any noun that allows a plural form. In contrast, derivational affixes characteristically apply to restricted classes of stems. Thus -ize can combine with only certain adjectives to form a verb.
modern -ize * new-ize
legal-ize * lawful-ize

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Morphological analysis
The theoretical foundations of word analysis in terms of its

morphological structure apply both to English and Ukrainian languages. But according to the classification of Indo-European languages English and Ukrainian belong to different types of flexional languages. English is synthetic and Ukrainian is analytic.
We never find pure synthesis or analysis in any language. But English is notably analytic. There are only seven inflectional affixes in it (all suffixes). Ukrainian has dozens of inflectional affixes and encodes contrasts not represented in English.

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Derivational affixes
1. Suffixes - realize their meaning only in connection with

the root morpheme. For example, suffixes can express the meaning of generalized property, abstract notion when combined with roots of adjectives denoting concrete properties or features of objects: добр-от-а - добр-ий, хоробр-iсть - хоробр-ий, крут-изн-а - крут-ий.
The suffix being combined with the root specifies or changes the content of the word and together with the ending indicates what part of speech it belongs to. Suffixes can transform the word into another part of speech.

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Derivational affixes
2. Prefixes - differ from derivational suffixes because they

are added to the whole word and not to the root and can't transform the word into another part of speech, e.g. весна - провесна, давнiй - прадавнiй, ходити - заходити, звично - незвично.
3. Postfixes - - ся serves to create reflexive verbs: лити - литися, солодкий - насолоджуватися.
4. Infixes - are used to connect two or more roots thus occur within a stem. In Ukrainian this function can be performed by three vowels : о, е, є, e.g. лiсотундра, першодрукар, працездатний, життєрадiсний.

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Functional affixes
form-creating (формотворчi) and word-changing (словозмiннi).
Form-creating affixes differ from derivational

as they are combined with the stem of one and the same word while derivational affixes are combined with the stem to create a new word.
Form-creating suffixes are standardized, obligatory for all the words belonging to the part of speech within which they create a definite system of word-forms (словоформи)

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flection or ending
expresses the connections of words with other words in

word-combinations or sentences.
Types of declention (вiдмiнювання) of nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns are differentiated through the system of endings which reflect grammatical meanings of case, gender and number or only case (in cardinal numerals).
Verbs have a complicated system of conjugation (дiєвiдмiнювання). Main indicators of the categories of person, gender and number are endings. Endings are highly abstract. They can be easily attached to all the words belonging to a certain type of declenation or conjugation and create a definite system of word-forms.

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M.P.Ivchenko
I. Non-derived words:
1. Non-derived words consisting of the root: тепер,

тут, там, дуже, мало, завжди, скрiзь, можна, у, при, вiд, над, до, i, але.
2. Non-derived words consisting of the root and the ending: мов-а, вод-а, вез-у, весел-ий. Here belong also words with zero affix: вiк, вiз, нiс.

Lecture 3 Morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian words

Содержание

Lecture 3Morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian wordsContrast is the occurance

Whatever mankind creates in the way of civilization is based on

Plan 1. The word as a fundamental unit of the language1.1.

Ф APPROACHES TO DEFINITION the most complex problem in the analysis of linguistic

Linguistic unitAny unit can be considered unit of the language on

Linguistic unitCan separate sounds cannot be considered units of the language?Is

fundamental assumption each linguistic unit has a constant and specific meaningTwo

the connection between the linguistic forms and their meanings Each combination

the definition should indicate the most essential characteristic features of the

the notion of the “word in general”In Ferdinand de Saussure’s opinion

O.I.SmirnitskiyThough in different languages words can be singled out of the

syntactic criterion Dionisius Frakiyskiy: the word is the smallest part

semantic-logical criterionW.Humboldt, Е.Zivers, D.Kudriavskyyidentified the sentence with the logical statement and

semantic-phonological criterion A word is an articulate sound-symbol in its aspect

syntactic-semantic criterion “one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated

A. Meillet combines the semantic, phonological and grammatical criteria and advances

important features of the word The word is a dialectical unity

A linguistic form which is never spoken alone is a bound

complex formIn any complex form, each constituent is said to accompany

Morpheme A linguistic form which bears no partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to

morphemeA morpheme can be described phonetically, since it consists of one

sememeIt is the morpheme that is the smallest meaningful unit of

lexiconSince every complex form is made up entirely of morphemes, a

L. Bloomfield A. Secondary words, containing free forms: 1. Compound words,

L. Bloomfield B. Primary words, not containing a free form: 1.

the role of morphemesAccording to the role morphemes play in constructing

Stem and rootWhen functional affix is stripped from the word, what

Types of stemsIn other cases, however, an affix can be added

Combinability of stemsStems are combined with definite affixes and their combinability

Semi-affixes Sometimes root morphemes can come close to affixes when their

Inflexional vs derivationalFunctional affixes convey grammatical meaning. They build different forms

Inflexional vs derivationalLexical derivatives make up a derivational or lexical paradigm.

Three criteriaThree criteria are commonly used to help distinguish between inflexional