The basics of the English language (lexicology)

Содержание

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Lecture 9-10 – Etymology and borrowings Plan: Etymology Native words Borrowed

Lecture 9-10 – Etymology and borrowings

Plan:
Etymology
Native words
Borrowed words
Assimilation of borrowings
Sources and

classification of borrowings
Etymological doublets and International words
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Etymology Отрасль лингвистики, изучающая исторические отношения между словом и более ранними

Etymology

Отрасль лингвистики, изучающая исторические отношения между словом и более ранними формами

или формой, от которых (которой) слово гипотетически произошло.
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Etymology of the English Word-stock Etymology (Gr. etymon “truth” + Gr.

Etymology of the English Word-stock

Etymology (Gr. etymon “truth” + Gr. logos

“learning”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin (происхождение) and history of words (историю слов), tracing them to their earliest determinable source (предпринимая попытки отследить их до самого раннего определяемого источника).
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More than two thirds (Более 2/3) of the English vocabulary are

More than two thirds (Более 2/3) of the English vocabulary are

borrowings (заимствования). Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish).
Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms.
English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings.
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The Origins of English Words

The Origins of English Words

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Definitions A native word (исконное слово) is a word which belongs

Definitions

A native word (исконное слово) is a word which belongs

to the original English word stock (оригинальному, самому древнему пласту) , as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period (древне английский период).
A borrowed word (a borrowing, or a loan word, заимствование) is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language (полностью или частично модифицированное по стандартам АЯ).
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Исконные слова (индоевропейские): kinship terms (термины родства): mother, father, son, daughter,

Исконные слова (индоевропейские):
kinship terms (термины родства): mother, father, son, daughter, brother;
important

objects and phenomena of nature (самые важные природные объекты): sun, moon, wind, water, stone, hill;
animals and plants (некоторые растения и животные): goose, wolf, cow, tree, corn;
parts of human body (части тела): ear, tooth, eye, foot, heart, lip;
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5. concrete physical properties and qualities (основные прилагательные): hard, quick, slow,

5. concrete physical properties and qualities (основные прилагательные): hard, quick, slow,

red, white, new;
6. numerals from 1 to a 100 (числительные от 1 до 100): one, two, twenty, eighty;
7. pronouns (personal, demonstrative, interrogative (местоимения)): I, you, he, my, that, who;
8. some of the most frequent words (наиболее частотные слова): bear, do, be, sit, stand.
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Words of the common Germanic origin (слова общегерманские) These words have

Words of the common Germanic origin (слова общегерманские)

These words have parallels

in German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic (немецкий, норвежский, голландский, исландский).
They contain a great number of semantic groups of which are the same as in the Indo-European group of native words (к ним относятся некоторые схожие категории с индоевропейскими словами):
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parts of the human body (части тела): head, arm, finger; periods

parts of the human body (части тела): head, arm, finger;
periods of

time (времена года): summer, winter, time, week;
natural phenomena (природные феномены): storm, rain, flood, ice, ground, sea, earth;
artefacts and materials (артефакты и материалы): bridge, house, shop, room, coal, iron, lead, cloth;
different kinds of garment (одежда): hat, shirt, shoe;
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abstract notions (абстрактные понятия): care, evil, hope, life, need; animals, birds

abstract notions (абстрактные понятия): care, evil, hope, life, need;
animals, birds and

plants (растения и животные): sheep, horse, fox, crow, oak, grass;
various notional verbs (глаголы): bake, burn, drive, buy, hear, keep, learn, make, rise;
adjectives of colour, size, etc (прилагательные): broad, dead, deaf, deep, grey, blue;
adverbs (наречия): down, out, before.
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Характеристики исконных слов Высокая степень сочетаемости, частотность использования; Развитая семантика, полисемия;

Характеристики исконных слов

Высокая степень сочетаемости, частотность использования;
Развитая семантика, полисемия;
Высокий словообразовательный потенциал;
Способность

участвовать в создании идиом.
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Исторические причины заимствований Римское завоевание (1st c. B.C.), Введение Христианства (7th

Исторические причины заимствований

Римское завоевание (1st c. B.C.),
Введение Христианства (7th c.

A.D.),
Набеги датчан (11th – 13th c. A.D.),
Норманнское завоевание (1066 A.D.),
Эпоха Возрождения (14th – 16th c. A.D.),
Прямые языковые контакты и политические культурные и т.д. отношения между разными странами (современный период)
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The Etymology of Borrowed Words Celtic (Кельтские): 5th – 6th A.

The Etymology of Borrowed Words

Celtic (Кельтские): 5th – 6th A. D.
Latin (Латинские):
1st

layer: 1st c. B. C. (Римское завоевание)
2nd layer: 7th c. A. D. (the introduction of Christianity (Христианство))
3rd layer: 14th – 16th c. (the Renaissance period (Возрождение))
Scandinavian (скандинавские): 8th – 11th c. A. D.
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The Etymology of Borrowed Words French (Французские): Norman borrowings: 11th –

The Etymology of Borrowed Words

French (Французские):
Norman borrowings: 11th – 13th A. D.
Parisian

borrowings: the Renaissance period
Greek: the Renaissance period
Italian: the Renaissance period and later
Spanish: the Renaissance period and later
Russian: the Renaissance period and later
German, Indian and other languages
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a number of Scandinavian borrowings were felt as derived from native

a number of Scandinavian borrowings were felt as derived from native

words (they were of the same root and the connection between them was easily seen), for example, drop (AS.) – drip (Scand.), true (AS.)-tryst (Scand.).
Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call (v), take (v), cast (v), die (v), law (n), husband (n), window (n), ill (adj), loose (adj), low (adj), weak (adj).
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Some of the words of this group are easily recognisable as

Some of the words of this group are easily recognisable as

Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk- combination:
sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt etc.
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Пути заимствования Borrowings enter the language in 2 ways: through oral

Пути заимствования

Borrowings enter the language in 2 ways:
through oral speech

– через устную речь (by immediate contact between the peoples).
They took place in the early periods (ранние) of history.
They are usually short (краткие) and undergo considerable changes in the act of adoption (наиболее подвержены ассимиляции и часто неотличимы от исконных слов, не ощущаются как чужеродные).
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Borrowings enter the language in 2 ways: through written speech –

Borrowings enter the language in 2 ways:
through written speech – через

письменную речь (by indirect contact through books, etc.).
They gained importance in recent times (более современные).
They preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their sound-form (часто сохраняют изначальное написание, звучание), their assimilation is long and laborious process (долго и незначительно ассимилируются).
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Классификация заимствований Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria: a)

Классификация заимствований

Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria:
a) according

to the aspect which is borrowed (аспект заимствования);
b) according to the degree of assimilation (степень ассимиляции);
c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed (язык заимствования).
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Первый критерий – аспект заимствования There are the following groups: phonetic

Первый критерий – аспект заимствования

There are the following groups:
phonetic borrowings

(loan words proper) (фонетические),
translation loans (переводные кальки),
semantic borrowings (семантические заимствования),
word coins (производные),
morphemic borrowings (заимствование морфем).
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Phonetic borrowings Самые частотные во всех языках мира, называются loan words

Phonetic borrowings

Самые частотные во всех языках мира, называются loan words

proper (идеальные заимствования).
Слова заимствуются с их написанием, произношением, значением, проходят процесс ассимиляции, каждый звук изначального языка заменяется на соответствующий звук языка-реципиента)
Иногда написание полностью меняется, может меняться также и семантическая структура
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Phonetic borrowings The position of the stress is very often influenced

Phonetic borrowings

The position of the stress is very often influenced

by the phonetic system of the borrowing language (перенос ударения по правилам языка-реципиента).
The paradigm of the word, sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed (грамматика может меняться).
labour, travel, table, chair, people (French); nomenklatura, sputnik (Russian); bank, soprano (Italian).
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Translation borrowings (калька) Words and expressions formed from the material already

Translation borrowings (калька)

Words and expressions formed from the material already existing

in the English language (формируются из существующих слов) according to patterns taken from another language (по моделям другого языка), by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme or word-for-word translation (пословный или поморфемный перевод,
mother tonguewall newspaper < Russ. Стенгазета.
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Semantic borrowing (семантическое заимствование) It is understood as the development in

Semantic borrowing (семантическое заимствование)

It is understood as the development in an

English word (развитие в английском слове нового значения) of a new meaning under the influence of a related word in another language (под влиянием сходного слова другого языка)
e.g. the English word pioneer means ‘explorer’ and ‘one who is among the first in new fields of activity’. Under influence of the Russian word пионер it has come to mean ‘a member of the Young Pioneers’ Organization’.
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Other types of borrowings word coins (производные) from Latin and Greek

Other types of borrowings

word coins (производные) from Latin and Greek –

are formed to denote new notions or inventions using Latin or Greek words (telephone)
morphemic borrowings – first a number of words with the morpheme is taken from another language, then the morpheme begins to form new words (-able- Latin; -ment- French; -ism- Greek).
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Assimilation of borrowings denotes a partial or total confrontation (частичное или

Assimilation of borrowings

denotes a partial or total confrontation (частичное или полное

влияние) to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the English language and its semantic system.
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The degree of assimilation (степень ассимиляции) of borrowings depends on the

The degree of assimilation (степень ассимиляции) of borrowings depends on

the following factors:
a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed (if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier) – принадлежность одной группе = более быстрая ассимиляция;
b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form (words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker) – заимствованные устно = более быстрая ассимиляция;
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The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors:

The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following

factors:
c) how often the borrowing is used in the language (the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated) – частота использования в языке = более быстрая ассимиляция;
d) how long the word lives in the language (the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is) – длительное существование слова в языке = более быстрая ассимиляция.
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Degree of Assimilation Completely assimilated words (полностью) E.g.: wine, window, chair.

Degree of Assimilation

Completely assimilated words (полностью)
E.g.: wine, window, chair.
2) Partially assimilated

words (частично) a. Loan words not assimilated semantically E.g.: sari, toreador. b. Loan words not assimilated grammatically E.g.: formula, index, phenomenon. c. Loan words not assimilated phonetically or graphically. E.g.: ballet, buffet, café.
Unassimilated (не ассимилированные) E.g. haute couture. The words from other languages for which there are corresponding English equivalents are so-called barbarisms. E.g.: ciao.
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Completely assimilated borrowed words (полностью) They follow all morphological, phonetical and

Completely assimilated borrowed words (полностью)
They follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic

standards (соответствуют стандарту языка-реципиента).
They take part in word-formation (участвуют в словообразовании).
Their morphological structure and motivation is transparent (мотивированны).
They are found in all layers of older borrowings: cheese (L.), husband (Sc.), animal (L.)
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Completely (полностью ассимилированные) assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words

Completely (полностью ассимилированные) assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words

in the language (не ощущаются чужеродными).
Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs: correct – corrected.
Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion: gate – gates.
In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the first one: capital, service.
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2) Partially (частично) assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into: borrowings not

2) Partially (частично) assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into:
borrowings not completely

assimilated graphically (не полностью ассимилированные в графике).
These are words from French, in which the final consonant is not read: ballet, buffet; with a diacritic mark: café, cliché; diagraphs ch, qu, ou, etc.: bouquet, banquet.
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2) Partially (частично) assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into: borrowings not

2) Partially (частично) assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into:
borrowings not completely

assimilated phonetically (не полностью ассимилированные в фонетике).
e.g. from French with the stress on the final syllable:
machine, cartoon, police, bourgeois,
prestige, regime.
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2) Partially (частично) assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into: borrowings not

2) Partially (частично) assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into:
borrowings not completely

assimilated grammatically (не полностью ассимилированные в грамматике).
e.g., nouns from Latin and Greek keep their original plural forms:
phenomenon – phenomena;
criterion – criteria.
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2) Partially assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into: borrowings not completely

2) Partially assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into:
borrowings not completely assimilated

semantically because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come, e.g.
sari, sombrero, rickshaw (Ch), sherbet (Arab), etc.
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3) Unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms (не ассимилированные = варваризмы) are words

3) Unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms (не ассимилированные = варваризмы)

are words from

other languages used by English people, e.g.
ciao – ‘good-bye’ or tête-à-tête.
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Classification of Borrowings according to the language from which they were

Classification of Borrowings according to the language from which they were

Borrowed

Romanic (Latin, Greek),
French,
Italian,
Spanish,
Scandinavian,
German,
Dutch,
Russian

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Major Influences Celtic - the number of celticisms in English is

Major Influences

Celtic - the number of celticisms in English is small.
Scandinavian

- the years 750 - 1050 are known as The Viking Age of England. Their influence upon the language was strong.
Norman and French - the Norman period lasted nearly 300 years.
LatinLatin and Greek
The first period of Latin influence was during the Roman occupation.
The second wave of the influence came with the christianization.
The third wave dated to the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries - the period of New Learning, when Greek and Latin were established as the main languages of learning, science, and culture.
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Minor Influences Dutch The contact with the Dutch language was mediated

Minor Influences

Dutch The contact with the Dutch language was mediated by the

political, commercial, and cultural contacts; thus the main spheres were maritime terminology (dock, gin, commodore, etc.), and terminology of drawing and painting (sketch, landscape).
Italian Main spheres are business (bank, risk, bankrupt, etc.), music, and architecture.
Others Spanish, German, Russian, Czech, Indian, Japanese, Red Indian, etc.
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Early Influences Celtic borrowings: A few Celtic words, such as crag,

Early Influences

Celtic borrowings: A few Celtic words, such as crag, entered

what would become the English language.
Latin loans: Roman soldiers and priests came to the British Isles before the massive invasions of Northern Europeans.
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Celtic borrowings Place names: Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux (Celtic “river”,

Celtic borrowings

Place names: Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux (Celtic “river”,

“water”); London (Llyn “river”+ dun “a fortified hill”) - “a fortress on the hill over the river”
cradle, cross, iron, flannel, tweed, lake (C. loch)
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Latin borrowings Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during

Latin borrowings

Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the

period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc.
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Latin borrowings Many Latin and Greek words came into English during

Latin borrowings

Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the

Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century.
At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the Runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings.
Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem.
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Latin borrowings Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the

Latin borrowings

Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle

English period due to the Great Revival of Learning.
These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc.
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Latin borrowings Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as

Latin borrowings

Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well.

Mostly they are words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes.
In medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography).
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The earliest Latin borrowings (1st c. A.D.) words denoting things connected

The earliest Latin borrowings (1st c. A.D.)

words denoting things connected with

war, trade, building and domestic life: pound, inch, cup, kitchen, pepper, butter, cheese, milk, wine, cherry
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Latin words borrowed into English through the Christianization of England (7th

Latin words borrowed into English through the Christianization of England (7th

c. A.D.)

persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals: priest, bishop, monk, nun, candle, temple
words connected with learning: grammar, school, scholar, decline, master, magister

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Latin borrowings of the Renaissance period (14th – 16th c. A.D.)

Latin borrowings of the Renaissance period (14th – 16th c. A.D.)


abstract words: major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create.

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Scandinavian borrowings By the end of the Old English period English

Scandinavian borrowings

By the end of the Old English period English underwent

a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles.
Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and their languages had much in common (много общего).
As the result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English.
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Scandinavian borrowings Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which

Scandinavian borrowings

Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens

very seldom, such as: same, both, till, fro, though, pronominal forms with «th»: they, them, their.
Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs, which did not exist in Old English (фразовые глаголы).
Phrasal verbs (фразовые глаголы) are now highly productive in English /take off, give in etc/.
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Scandinavian borrowings (8th - 11th c. A.D.) Verbs: call, take, cast,

Scandinavian borrowings (8th - 11th c. A.D.)

Verbs: call, take, cast, die,

want
Nouns: law, egg, husband (Sc. hūs + bōndi “inhabitant of the house”), window (Sc. vindauga “the eye of the wind”)
Adjectives: ill, loose, low, weak
Pronouns and pronominal forms: they, their, them, same, both, though.
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Scandinavian borrowings (place names) Derby, Tremsby (-by: Sc. “village, town”); Zinthorp,

Scandinavian borrowings (place names)

Derby, Tremsby (-by: Sc. “village, town”);
Zinthorp,

Altharp (-thorp: Sc. “village”);
Eastoft, Nortoft (-toft: Sc. “a plot of land covered with grass”);
Troutbeck (-beck: Sc. “brook”);
Inverness (-ness: Sc. “cape”);
Applethwait, Crossthwait (-thwait: Sc. “forest glade”)
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Scandinavian borrowings However there were also many words in the two

Scandinavian borrowings

However there were also many words in the two languages

which were different, and some of them were borrowed into English,
such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window etc,
such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong,
such verbs as : call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others.
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Norman influence The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most

Norman influence

The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of

them came into English during the Norman Conquest (норманнское завоевание).
French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also it’s spelling, because French scribes wrote documents as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French (влияние на правописание).
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The French Language in England 1066-1200 Norman French is the native

The French Language in England 1066-1200


Norman French is the native

language of the nobility (французский – язык аристократии, верхушки государства).
Probably not a great deal of bilingualism (малая степень билингвизма).
Small numbers of French loans enter English (небольшое количество заимствований).
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French is the cultivated, prestige language (престижный язык). There is a

French is the cultivated, prestige language (престижный язык).
There is a diglossic

situation, with French the high-prestige, English the low-prestige variety (диглоссия, французский престижный, английский – нет).
Large numbers of French loans enter English (большое количество заимствований)

The French Language in England 1200-1300

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English becomes the dominant language, but French remains dominant in literature

English becomes the dominant language, but French remains dominant in literature

and at the court (английский начинает доминировать).
Although the knowledge of French is waning, its linguistic prestige can be seen by still increasing numbers of French loans in English (заимствования продолжаются).

The French Language in England 1300-1400

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1334-1453 The Hundred Years' War with France (война с Францией). 1348-9

1334-1453 The Hundred Years' War with France (война с Францией).
1348-9

The Black Death. 30% mortality. Labour shortage, wage rises, increasing importance of the English-speaking classes (эпидемия чумы = необходимость в трудовом населении (англоязычные))
1386 English accepted in the courts ('Statute of Pleading') – признание английского в суде

The French Language in England 1300-1400 Factors contributing to the decline of French (почему французский уступил):

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Two major English poets at the end of the 14th century:

Two major English poets at the end of the 14th century:


Gower writes mostly in French (but composes one long work Confessio amantis, in English)
Chaucer writes almost entirely in English.
Evidence of private letters:
1350: French is the rule.
After 1400: English becomes common.
After 1450: English is the rule.
Расцвет англоязычной культуры и поэзии

The French Language in England 1300-1400 Factors contributing to the decline of French (почему французский уступил):

Слайд 63

Norman influence «v» was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead

Norman influence

«v» was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of

«f» in the intervocal position /lufian - love/,
the digraph «ch» was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter «c» / chest/ before front vowels where it had been palatalized,
the digraph «sh» was introduced instead of the combination «sc» to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/,
Слайд 64

Norman influence the digraph «th» was introduced instead of the Runic

Norman influence

the digraph «th» was introduced instead of the Runic letter 

«ð» /this, thing/,
the letter «y» was introduced instead of the Runic letter «3» to denote the sound /j/ /yet/, 
the digraph «qu» substituted the combination «cw» to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/,
Слайд 65

Norman influence the digraph «ou» was introduced to denote the sound

Norman influence

the digraph «ou» was introduced to denote the sound /u:/

/house/ (The sound /u:/ was later on diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and fully assimilated borrowings).
As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter «u» before «v», «m», «n» and the digraph «th» by the letter «o» to escape the combination of many vertical lines /«sunu» - «son», luvu» - «love»/.
Слайд 66

Norman borrowings (11th – 13th c. A.D.) Educational terms: pupil, lesson,

Norman borrowings (11th – 13th c. A.D.)

Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library,

science, pen, pencil
Artistic and literary terms: image, character, figure, volume, design
Terms of everyday life: chair, table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, breakfast
Слайд 67

Norman borrowings (11th – 13th c. A.D.) Government and administration: state,

Norman borrowings (11th – 13th c. A.D.)

Government and administration: state, country,

government, parliament, prince, baron
Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison, jury
Religious terms: saint, sermon (проповедь), prayer, parish (приход), chapel
Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy
Слайд 68

English-French Pairs Sheep-mutton Calf-veal Deer-venison Pig-pork Begin-commence Child-infant Doom-judgment Freedom-liberty Happiness-felicity

English-French Pairs

Sheep-mutton
Calf-veal
Deer-venison
Pig-pork
Begin-commence
Child-infant
Doom-judgment
Freedom-liberty

Happiness-felicity
Hearty-cordial
Help-aid
Hide-conceal
Holy-saintly
Meal-repast
Stench-aroma
Wish-desire

Слайд 69

Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period and later regime, routine, police, machine,

Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period and later

regime, routine, police, machine, ballet,

matinée, scene, technique, bourgeois, etc.
Слайд 70

Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through

Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through

French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated.
There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings:
Слайд 71

a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance,

a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance,

piruette, vaudeville;
b) words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre;
c) words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau;
d) words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine.
Слайд 72

Italian influence Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England brought

Italian influence

Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England brought many

Italian words into English.
The earliest Italian borrowing came into English in the 14-th century, it was the word «bank» /from the Italian «banko» - «bench»/. Italian moneylenders and moneychangers sat in the streets on benches.
Слайд 73

Italian influence When they suffered losses they turned over their benches,

Italian influence

When they suffered losses they turned over their benches, it

was called «banco rotta» from which the English word «bankrupt» originated.
In the 17-th century some geological terms were borrowed: volcano, granite, bronze, lava.
At the same time some political terms were borrowed: manifesto, bulletin.
Слайд 74

Italian influence But mostly Italian is famous by its influence in

Italian influence

But mostly Italian is famous by its influence in music

and in all Indo-European languages musical terms were borrowed from Italian: alto, baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio, quartet, quintet, opera, operetta, libretto, piano, violin.
Among the 20-th century Italian borrowings we can mention: gazette, incognito, altostrati, fiasco, fascist, dilettante, grotesque, graffitto etc.
Слайд 75

Spanish influence Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American

Spanish influence

Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant.

There are the following semantic groups of them:
a) trade terms: cargo, embargo;
b) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, habanera, guitar;
c) names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, tobacco, cocoa, banana, ananas, apricot etc.
Слайд 76

The Renaissance period borrowings (14th – 16th c. A.D.) Italian: piano,

The Renaissance period borrowings (14th – 16th c. A.D.)

Italian: piano, violin,

opera, alarm, colonel
Spanish: potato, tomato, cargo, banana, cocoa.
Greek: direct (e.g. atom, cycle, ethics, esthete), or through Latin (datum, status, phenomenon, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music).
Слайд 77

German borrowings There are some 800 words borrowed from German into

German borrowings

There are some 800 words borrowed from German into English.


Some of them have classical roots, e.g. in some geological terms, such as: cobalt, bismuth, zink, quarts, wolfram.
There were also words denoting objects used in everyday life which were borrowed from German:  iceberg, lobby, and rucksack, Kindergarten etc.
Слайд 78

German borrowings In the period of the Second World War the

German borrowings

In the period of the Second World War the following

words were borrowed: Volkssturm, Luftwaffe, SS-man, Bundeswehr, gestapo, gas chamber and many others.
After  the Second World War the following words were borrowed: Volkswagen etc.
Слайд 79

Holland influence Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries

Holland influence

Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries and

more than 2000 Holland borrowings were borrowed into English.
Most of them are nautical terms and were mainly borrowed in the 14-th century, such as: freight, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak and many others.
Слайд 80

Russian influence There were constant contacts between England and Russia and

Russian influence

There were constant contacts between England and Russia and they

borrowed words from one language into the other.
Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly words connected with trade relations, such as: rouble, copeck, pood, sterlet, vodka, sable, and also words relating to nature, such as: taiga, tundra, steppe etc.
Слайд 81

Russian influence There is also a large group of Russian borrowings

Russian influence

There is also a large group of Russian borrowings which

came into English through Rushian literature of the 19-th century, such as: Narodnik, moujik, duma, zemstvo, volost, ukase etc, and also words which were formed in Russian with Latin roots, such as: nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc.
Слайд 82

Russian influence After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared

Russian influence

After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in

Russian connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of them were borrowed into English, such as: collectivization, udarnik, Komsomol etc., and also translation loans, such as: collective farm,  five-year plan.
One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such as: glasnost, nomenklatura, etc.
Слайд 83

Other borrowings Japanese: karate, judo, hara-kiri, kimono, tycoon; Arabic: algebra, algorithm,

Other borrowings

Japanese: karate, judo, hara-kiri, kimono, tycoon;
Arabic: algebra, algorithm, fakir, giraffe,

sultan
Turkish: yogurt, kiosk, tulip
Persian: caravan, shawl, bazaar, sherbet
Eskimo: kayak, igloo, anorak
Amerindian languages: toboggan, wigwam, opossum
Russian: bistro, tsar, balalaika, tundra, sputnik
Слайд 84

Etymological doublets (этимологические дублеты) Etymological Doublets are the words originated from

Etymological doublets (этимологические дублеты)

Etymological Doublets are the words originated from the

same etymological source, but different in phonemic shape and in meaning.
The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, but there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin. There meanings are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing.
Слайд 85

Sources of etymological doublets Native word + borrowed word: shirt (Eng.)

Sources of etymological doublets

Native word + borrowed word: shirt (Eng.) –

skirt (Scand.); shrew (Eng.) – screw (Scand.)
Both words are borrowed from different languages which are historically descended from the same route (из разных языков, но исторически происходят от одного источника):
captain (Lat.) – chieftain (French) (вожак, главарь),
senior (Lat.) – sir (French), canal [kə'næl] (Lat.) – channel (French).
Слайд 86

Sources (источники) of etymological doublets Both words are be borrowed from

Sources (источники) of etymological doublets

Both words are be borrowed from the

same language but in different historical periods (из одного языка, но в разные исторические периоды):
travel (Norman borrowing) – travail (Parisian borrowing) (тяжелый труд, работа),
corpse [kɔ:ps] (Norman borrowing) (труп) – corps [kɔ:] (Parisian borrowing) (корпус, войсковой соединение)
Слайд 87

Sources of etymological doublets Both words are native, but one of

Sources of etymological doublets

Both words are native, but one of them

originates from the other (оба исконные, одно происходит от другого):
history – story,
phantasy – fancy (иллюзия, воображение, каприз),
defence – fence,
shadow – shade.
Слайд 88

Latino-French doublets

Latino-French doublets

Слайд 89

Franco-French doublets

Franco-French doublets

Слайд 90

Scandinavian-English doublets

Scandinavian-English doublets

Слайд 91

Etymological triplets – group of words of common root: hospital (L)

Etymological triplets

– group of words of common root:
hospital (L) –

hostel (Norm.Fr) – hotel (Par.Fr);
to capture (L) – to catch (Norm. Fr) – to chase (Par. Fr).
Слайд 92

Words which are borrowed by several languages (заимствуются в несколько зыков).


Words which are borrowed by several languages (заимствуются в несколько зыков).


They convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication (важные аспекты коммуникации).
Many of them are Latin and Greek origin.

International words (интернациональные слова)

Слайд 93

Names of sciences: philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology.

Names of sciences: philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology.


Terms of art: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist, primadonna.
Political terms: politics, policy, democracy, revolution, communism, progress.
The English language contributed a number of international words to world languages: football, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, etc.
Слайд 94

Fruits and foodstuff imported from exotic countries: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola,

Fruits and foodstuff imported from exotic countries: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola,

banana, mango, grapefruit.
International words are often confused with other words which have the same origin but have diverged in meaning in different languages, e.g. extravagance 1) нелепость, сумасбродство, вздор; блажь; причуды 2) расточительность; мотовство – расточительность; accurate – верный, правильный, точный
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