Ancient Oromo History. A reconstruction

Содержание

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Kingdom of Kerma (2050-1580 BCE) Around 3000 B.C., a town began

Kingdom of Kerma (2050-1580 BCE)

Around 3000 B.C., a town began to

develop near the Neolithic dwellings.
Pre-Kerma (c. 3500-2500BC) No C-Group Phase
Early Kerma (c. 2500-2050BC) C-Group Phase Ia-Ib
Middle Kerma (c. 2050-1750BC) C-Group Phase Ib-IIa
Classic Kerma (c. 1750-1580BC) C-Group Phase IIb-III
Final Kerma (c. 1580-1500BC) C-Group Phase IIb-III
Late Kerma – ‘New Kingdom’ (c.1500-1100?BC) ‘New Kingdom’
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Kingdom of Kerma (2050-1580 BCE)

Kingdom of Kerma (2050-1580 BCE)

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Kingdom of Kerma (2050-1580 BCE)

Kingdom of Kerma (2050-1580 BCE)

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Kingdom of Kerma (2050-1580 BCE)

Kingdom of Kerma (2050-1580 BCE)

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Egyptian control over Kush (1580–800BCE) Under Tuthmosis I, Egypt made several

Egyptian control over Kush (1580–800BCE)

Under Tuthmosis I, Egypt made several

campaigns south. This resulted in their annexation of Kerma/ Kush) c.1504 BCE. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly 'Egyptianized' yet rebellions continued for 220 years (till c.1300 BCE).
During the New Egyptian Kingdom, Kerma/ Kush nevertheless became a key province of the Egyptian Empire - economically, politically and spiritually. Indeed, major Pharaonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata (today’s Karima), and the royal lineages of the two regions seem to have intermarried.
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Kushitic Dynasty and the rule over Upper Egypt (760 - 666 BCE)

Kushitic Dynasty and the rule over Upper Egypt (760 - 666

BCE)
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The Pyramids at Nuri

The Pyramids at Nuri

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Example of fake maps made up because of political agendas

Example of fake maps made up because of political agendas

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Taharqa with Queen Takahatamun at Jebel Barkal Temple - Napata

Taharqa with Queen Takahatamun at Jebel Barkal Temple - Napata

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Kushitic Kings of Napata – Qore

Kushitic Kings of Napata – Qore

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Taharqa followed by his mother Queen Abar. Jebel Barkal - room C

Taharqa followed by his mother Queen Abar. Jebel Barkal - room

C
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Taharqa making offerings to Hemen – the Kushitic Horus

Taharqa making offerings to Hemen – the Kushitic Horus

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The Rise of Meroe – ca. 400 BCE

The Rise of Meroe – ca. 400 BCE

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The Meroitic alphabets

The Meroitic alphabets

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Meroitic Language: Ancient Afaan Oromo Despite the fact that F. L.

Meroitic Language: Ancient Afaan Oromo

Despite the fact that F. L. Griffith

has identified the 23 Meroitic alphabetic scripture’s signs already in 1909, not much progress has been made towards an ultimate decipherment of the Meroitic.
Scarcity of epigraphic evidence plays a certain role in this regard, since as late as the year 2000 we were not able to accumulate more than 1278 texts.
If we now add to that the lack of lengthy texts, the lack of any bilingual text (not necessarily Egyptian /Meroitic, it could be Ancient Greek / Meroitic, if we take into consideration that Arkamaniqo / Ergamenes was well versed in Greek), and a certain lack of academic vision, we understand why the state of our knowledge about the history of the Meroites is still so limited.
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Meroe - According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, the name of

Meroe - According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, the name of

the city was Medewi or Bedewi


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Meroe

Meroe

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Meroe

Meroe

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Meroe

Meroe

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Meroe

Meroe

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Mussawarat as Sufra

Mussawarat as Sufra

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Mussawarat as Sufra

Mussawarat as Sufra

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Naqa

Naqa


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Naqa

Naqa

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Naqa

Naqa

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Naqa

Naqa

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Naqa

Naqa

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The End of Meroe I Amidst numerous unclear points of the

The End of Meroe I

Amidst numerous unclear points of the Kushitic

/ Meroitic history, the end of Meroe, and the consequences of this event remain a most controversial point among scholars. Quite indicatively, we may mention here the main efforts of historical reconstitution.  A. Arkell, Sayce and others asserted that Meroe was captured and destroyed, following one military expedition led by Ezana of Axum.  B. Reisner insisted that, after Ezana’s invasion and victory, Meroe remained a state with another dynasty tributary to Axum. 
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The End of Meroe II C. Monneret de Villard and Hintze

The End of Meroe II

C. Monneret de Villard and Hintze

affirmed that Meroe was totally destroyed before Ezana’s invasion, due to an earlier Axumite Abyssinian raid.  D. Torok, Shinnie, Kirwan, Haegg and others concluded that Meroe was defeated by a predecessor of Ezana, and continued existing as a vassal state.  E. Bechhaus- Gerst specified that Meroe was invaded prior to Ezana’s raid, and that the Axumite invasion did not reach lands further in the north of Meroe.
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The End of Meroe III With two fragmentary inscriptions from Meroe,

The End of Meroe III

With two fragmentary inscriptions from Meroe,

one from Axum, two graffitos from Kawa and Meroe, and one coin being all the evidence we have so far, we have little to reconstruct the details that led to the collapse of Meroe.
One relevant source, the Inscription of Ezana (DAE 11, the ‘monotheistic’ inscription in vocalized Ge’ez), remains a somewhat controversial historical source to be useful in this regard.
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The End of Meroe IV One point is sure, however: there

The End of Meroe IV

One point is sure, however: there was

never a generalized massacre of the Meroitic inhabitants of the lands conquered by Ezana.
The aforementioned DAE 11 inscription mentions just 758 Meroites killed by the Axumite forces. 
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Christianization of Kush 360 – 400 CE

Christianization of Kush 360 – 400 CE


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Christianization of Kush 360 – 400 CE

Christianization of Kush 360 – 400 CE


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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush I What is even

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush I

What is even more

difficult to comprehend is the reason behind the scarcity of population attested on Meroitic lands in the aftermath of Ezana’s raid.
The post-Meroitic and pre-Christian, transitional phase of Sudan’s history is called X-Group or period, or Ballana Period and this is again due to lack to historical insight.
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush II Contrarily to what

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush II


Contrarily to what

happened for many centuries of Meroitic history, when the Meroitic South (the area between Shendi and Atbara in modern Sudan with the entire hinterland of Butana that was called Insula Meroe, i.e. Island Meroe in the Antiquity) was overpopulated, compared to the Meroitic North (from Napata / Karima to the area between Aswan and Abu Simbel, which was called Triakontaschoinos and was divided between Meroe and the Roman Empire), during the X-Group times, the previously under-populated area gives us the impression of a more densely inhabited region, if compared to the previous center of Meroitic power and population density.
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush III The new situation

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush III

The new situation

contradicts earlier descriptions and narrations by Dio Cassius and Strabo.
Furthermore, the name ‘Ballana period’ is quite indicative in this regard. Ballana lies on Egyptian soil, whereas not far in the south of the present Sudanese - Egyptian border is located Karanog with its famous tumuli that bear evidence of Nubian upper hand in terms of social anthropology. The southernmost counterpart of Karanog culture can be found in Tangassi (nearby Karima, which represented the ‘North’ for what was the center of earlier Meroitic power gravitation). 
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush IV Certainly, the motives

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush IV

Certainly, the motives of

Ezana's raid have not yet been properly studied and assessed by modern scholarship. The reasons for the raid may vary from a simple nationalistic usurpation of the name of 'Ethiopia' (Kush), which would give Christian eschatological legitimacy to the Axumite Abyssinian kingdom, to the needs of international politics (at the end of 4th century) and the eventuality of an Iranian - Meroitic alliance at the times of Shapur II (310-379), aimed at outweighing the Roman-Abyssinian bond.
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush V Yet, this alliance

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush V

Yet, this alliance could

have been the later phase of a time honored Meroitic diplomatic tradition (diffusion of Mithraism as attested on the Jebel Qeili reliefs of Shorkaror).
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Jebel Qeili Reliefs of Shorkaror 1st c. CE

Jebel Qeili Reliefs of Shorkaror 1st c. CE


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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush VI What we can

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush VI

What we can be

sure of are
the absence of a large-scale massacre, and
- the characteristic scarcity of population in the central Meroitic provinces during the period that follows Ezana’s raid and the destruction of Meroe. 
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush VII The only plausible

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush VII

The only plausible explanation

is that the scarcity of population in Meroe mainland after Meroe's destruction was due to the fact that the Meroites in their outright majority (at least for the inhabitants of Meroe's southern provinces) fled away and migrated to areas where they would stay independent from the Semitic Christian kingdom of Axumite Abyssinia.
This explanation may sound quite fresh as approach, but it actually is not, since it constitutes the best utilization of the already existing historical data. 
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush VIII From archeological evidence,

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush VIII

From archeological evidence,

it becomes clear that during X-Group phase and throughout the Makkurian period the former heartland of Meroe remained mostly uninhabited.
The end of Meroe is definitely abrupt, and it is obvious that Meroe's driving force had gone elsewhere. The correct question should be ‘where to?’ 
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush IX There is no

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush IX

There is no evidence

of Meroites sailing the Nile downwards to the area of the 4th (Karima) and the 3rd (Kerma) cataracts, which was earlier the northern circumference of Meroe and remained untouched by Ezana. There is no textual evidence in Greek, Latin and/or Coptic to testify to such a migratory movement or to hint at an even more incredible direction, i.e. Christian Roman Egypt.
If we add to this the impossibility of marching to the heartland of the invading Axumites (an act that would mean a new war), we reduce the options to relatively few. 
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush X The migrating Meroites

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush X

The migrating Meroites could

go either to the vast areas of the Eastern and the Western deserts or enter the African jungle or ultimately search a possibly free land that, being arable and good for pasture, would keep them far from the sphere of the Christian Axumites. It would be very erroneous to expect settled people to move to the desert. Such an eventuality would be a unique oxymoron in the history of the mankind. Nomadic peoples move from the steppes, the savannas and the deserts to fertile lands, and they settle there, or cross long distances through steppes and deserts. However, settled people, if under pressure, move to other fertile lands that offer them the possibility of cultivation and pasture.
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XI The few scholars

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XI

The few scholars who

think that Meroitic continuity could be found among the present day Beja and Hadendawa are oblivious to the aforementioned reality of the world history, and of the fact that it was never contravened.
In addition, the Blemmyes were never friendly to the Meroites. Every now and then, they had attacked parts of the Nile valley and the Meroites had had to repulse them thence. It would rather be inconceivable for the Meroitic population, after seeing Meroe sacked by Ezana, to move to a land where life would be difficult and where other enemies would wait them! 
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XII It is essential

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XII

It is essential to

stress here that the entire environmental milieu of Sudan was very different during the times of the Late Antiquity that we examine in our approach.
Butana may look like a wasteland nowadays, and the Pyramids of Bagrawiyah may be sunk in the sand, whereas Mussawarat es Sufra and Naqah demand a real effort in crossing the desert, but in the first centuries of Christian era, the entire landscape was dramatically different. 
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XIII In ancient times,

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XIII

In ancient times,

Butana was not a desert but a fertile cultivated land. We have actually found remains of reservoirs, aqueducts, various hydraulic installations, irrigation systems and canals in Meroe and elsewhere. Not far from Mussawarat es Sufra there must have been an enclosure where captive elephants were trained before being transported to Ptolemais Theron (present day Suakin, 50 km in the south of Port Sudan) and then further on to Alexandria. Desert was in the vicinity, certainly, but not that close. 
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XIV We have good

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XIV

We have good

reason to believe that, following the Ezana's raid, the Meroites, rejecting the perspective of forced christening, and the Abyssinian rule migrated southwestwards up to Khartoum. From there, they proceeded southeastwards alongside the Blue Nile in a direction that would keep them safe and far from the Axumite Abyssinians whose state did not expand as far in the south as Gondar and Tana Lake.
Proceeding in this way and crossing successively areas of modern cities, such as Wad Madani, Sennar, Damazin, and Asosa, and from there on, they expanded in later times over the various parts of Biyya Oromo. 
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XV We do not

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XV

We do not

imply that the migration was completed in the span of one lifetime; quite contrarily, we have reasons to believe that the establishment of Alodia (or Alwa) is due to the progressive waves of Meroitic migrants who settled first in the area of Khartoum that was out of the westernmost and southernmost confines of the Meroitic state.
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XVI Only when Christianization

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XVI

Only when Christianization became

a matter of concern for the evangelizing Nobatians, and the two Christian Sudanese states were already strong, the chances of preserving the pre-Christian Meroitic cultural heritage in the area around Soba (capital of Alodia) became truly poor.
Then another wave of migrations took place, with early Alodian Meroites proceeding as far in the south as Damazin and Asosa, areas that remained always beyond the southern border of Alodia (presumably around Sennar), the 3rd Christian state in Christian Ethiopia, i.e. Sudan.
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XVII Like this, the

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XVII

Like this, the

second migratory Meroitic wave may have entered around 600 CE in the westernmost confines of today’s Biyya Oromo, the area where the Oromos, descendents of the migrated Meroites, still live today.  A great number of changes at the cultural-behavioral levels are to be expected, when a settled people migrates to faraway lands. As example. the Phoenicians had kings in Tyre, Sidon, Byblos and their other cities-states, but introduced a democratic system in their colonies, when they sailed faraway and colonized various parts of the Mediterranean.
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The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XVIII The collapse of

The Meroitic - Oromo Migration from Kush XVIII

The collapse of

the Meroitic royalty was a shock for the Nile valley; the Christian kingdoms of Nobatia, Makkuria and Alodia were ruled by kings whose power was to great extent counterbalanced by that of the Christian clergy.
With the Meroitic royal family decimated by Ezana, it is quite possible that the high priests of Apedemak and Amani (Amun) took much of the administrative responsibility in their hands, inciting people to migrate and establishing a form of collective and representative authority among the Meroitic Elders. They may even have preserved the royal title of Qore within completely different socio-anthropological context. But Gadaa system, as it is today, was established only later and far from the old homeland.
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What today’s Oromos must do in order to better assess their

What today’s Oromos must do in order to better assess their

History
A Call for
Comparative
Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies 
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Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies I National diachronic continuity is better attested and

Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies I 

National diachronic continuity is better attested and more

markedly noticed in terms of Culture, Religion and Philosophical-Behavioral system.
The first circle of comparative research would encompass the world of the Ancient Egyptian - Kushitic -Meroitic and Oromo concepts, beliefs, faiths and cults - anything that relates to the Weltanschauung of the three cultural units under study.
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Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies II B. Archeological research can help greatly too.

Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies II 

B. Archeological research can help greatly too. At

this point one has to stress the reality that the critical area for the reconstruction suggested has been totally indifferent for Egyptologists, Meroitic and Axumite archeologists so far. The Blue Nile valley in Sudan and Abyssinia was never the subject of an archeological survey, and the same concerns the Oromo highlands. Certainly modern archeologists prefer something concrete that would lead them to a great discovery, being therefore very different from the pioneering nineteenth century archeologists. An archeological study would be necessary in the Blue Nile valley and the Oromo highlands in the years to come. 
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Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies III C. A linguistic - epigraphic approach may

Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies III

C. A linguistic - epigraphic approach may bring

forth even more spectacular results. It could eventually end up with a complete decipherment of the Meroitic and the Makkurian. An effort must be made to read the Meroitic texts, hieroglyphic and cursive, with the help of Oromo language. Meroitic personal names and toponymics must be studied in the light of a potential Oromo interpretation. Comparative linguistics may unveil affinities that will lead to reconsideration of the work done so far in the Meroitic decipherment. 
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Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies IV D. Last but not least, another dimension

Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies IV

D. Last but not least, another dimension would

be added to the project with the initiation of comparative anthropological studies.
Data extracted from findings in the Meroitic cemeteries must be compared with data provided by the anthropological study of present day Oromos.
The research must encompass pictorial documentation from the various Meroitic temples' bas-reliefs. 
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What Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies can do Bring Identity, Integrity, National Self-determination,

What Comparative Egyptian-Meroitic-Oromo Studies can do

Bring Identity, Integrity, National Self-determination, Independence,

Nation-building and Heritage preservation to the Oromos
Create a Model of National Historiography that other nations will follow (Somalia, Yemen, Sudan, Egypt, etc.), thus solving their problems
Reject Colonial History & Establish a Genuine African Historiography
Bring an End to the forthcoming Western plans providing for the total destruction of Africa and for the full Amharization / Rastafarization of the Black Continent
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