Содержание
- 2. Up to the first decade of the XIX century Russian policy towards the non-Russian peoples of
- 3. THE STABILIZATION OF POWER THROUGH REPRESSION UNDER NICHOLAS I. The government of Nicolas I (1825-1855) was
- 4. The Lithuanians, Belorussians and Ukrainians now gradually came to the notice of the Russian Government, and
- 5. THE POLICY OF FORCED INTEGRATION IN THE WEST AFTER 1863. Although Alexander II (1855-1881) has gone
- 6. The government banned Lithuanian, Belorussian and Ukrainian languages. In 1863 minister P. Valuev banned the printing
- 7. Most of reforms of the 1860s-1870s were also introduced in Bessarabia and the Crimea. The Romanian
- 8. ALEXANDER III (1881-1894). Under Alexander III, whose reign was characterized by political reaction and defensive modernization,
- 9. Finland became the object of the Russian policy of standartization far later than Poland and the
- 10. THE JEWS. The Jewish question was at the centre of the debate at the end of
- 11. THE NATIONALITIES QUESTION AND THE REVOLUTIONS. At the beginning of the XX century the state, the
- 12. A number of non-Russian ethnic groups in the east of the empire took little or no
- 13. THE REVOLUTION OF 1917. The fate of Tsarist power in Russia was decided in the capital.
- 14. The Poles and Lithuanians, and some of the Belorussians, Ukrainians, Latvians and Baltic Germans continued to
- 15. In the case of Belorussians, who were partly under German occupation, events took a less dramatic
- 16. The year 1917 was relatively quite in Transcaucasia, which also lay in the vicinity of the
- 17. The Crimea Tatars founded a national party which demanded autonomy. The moderate movement of the northern
- 18. Most of the national parties of the non-Russian periphery initially adopted a wait-and-see attitude after the
- 19. In addition to the policies by the Bolsheviks the war made a significant contribution to the
- 20. USSR AS A MULTIETHNIC STATE. The end of the Civil War led to the reorganization of
- 21. As early as 1918 Lenin returned to the principle of federalism and Russia was proclaimed to
- 22. The order of the new federal state was based on territories defined by language and nationality.
- 23. THE GOLDEN TWENTIES. In the early years of the Soviet Union it at first proved possible
- 24. The central government sought to cooperate with the loyal non-Russian elites, which were co-oped into the
- 25. This policy was known as korenizatsiia: the systematic increase in the number of local inhabitants in
- 26. STALIN’S POLICY ON NATIONALITIES. The New economic policy achieved the reconstruction of the economy in a
- 27. At the same time the purges of the Ukrainian elite who was suspected of harbouring National
- 28. From the end of the 1930s onwards the Russian language was deliberately encouraged and introduced as
- 29. The deportation during the second World war constituted a new climax in the repressive policy on
- 30. Following in the footsteps of the tsarist empire, the Hitler-Stalin pact and the Soviet Union victory
- 31. DESTALINIZATION AND THE FORMATION OF NEW NATIONAL ELITES. After the death of Stalin the excesses of
- 32. The industrial development of the Soviet Union and with it the process of urbanization continued to
- 33. Hopes of rapid internationalization and the formation of a new historical community, the Soviet people remained
- 34. However, Non-Russians were now once again able to make better use of the USSR’s federal structures.
- 35. The national illegal movements reached different levels of intensity in the various nations. In political terms
- 36. In the case of other nations smaller circles of intellectuals organized national activities. Of the Ukrainians,
- 37. PERESTROIKA AND THE COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET UNION. In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev used the slogans perestroika
- 38. The 1988 witnessed an explosion of national conflicts. The Armenians, whose large demonstrations called for the
- 39. In the course of 1988 Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians took over the leadership of the emancipation
- 40. In Ukraine the national movement needed slightly more time in order to mobilize the masses. Only
- 41. All the republics of the Union had declared themselves to be sovereign states by the end
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Up to the first decade of the XIX century Russian policy
Up to the first decade of the XIX century Russian policy
New forces: the national movements and national consciousness of the non-Russians, the increasingly urgent need to modernize the empire, Russia was affected by changes in the rest of Europe, where the model of the ethnically uniform nation state was gaining ground.
The tendency towards swift administrative, social and cultural integration became stronger.
THE STABILIZATION OF POWER THROUGH REPRESSION UNDER NICHOLAS I.
The government of
THE STABILIZATION OF POWER THROUGH REPRESSION UNDER NICHOLAS I.
The government of
The severe reaction to the Polish revolt (1830) signified a continuation of traditional policies in that it punished the disloyal Polish elite. Intervention in Poland was supported by a large section of educated Russian society. Numerous estates were confiscated and granted to Russians, and many nobles were now required to do military service in Russia. The constitution of 1815 was suspended, the Sejm and the Polish Army were abolished, and the University of Warsaw closed down. The integration of the Kingdom of Poland into the Russian Empire began to be implemented in the next two decades, which saw the introduction of provisional subdivisions, of the Russian currency, weights and measures, of the Russian penal code, the Russians police corps, of Russian censorship, and direct supervision of the schools. The catholic Church in Poland was now discriminated against in favour of its Orthodox counterpart.
The Lithuanians, Belorussians and Ukrainians now gradually came to the notice
The Lithuanians, Belorussians and Ukrainians now gradually came to the notice
The Baltic provinces it encouraged attempts by the newly founded Orthodox bichopric of Riga to convert the Latvians and Estonians. The predominant position of German elite was preserved, and codification of provincial law completed in 1845, which confirmed their traditional privileges.
The same was true of Finland, whose internal autonomy was not changed. It was also true of the Armenians.
In the reign of Nicolas I the church and the Orthodox faith once again became important pillars of conservative state policy. The effect of this was felt in more severe policies towards the Jews, and in a revival of missionary activity.
In 1828 the autonomy of Bessarabia was substantially curtailed, and subsequently the Romanian language was banished from the administration and the schools.
A similar policy of assimilation was also pursued in the case of the Georgians.
Top priority continued to be accorded to social and political stability and to cooperation with loyal non-Russian elites.
THE POLICY OF FORCED INTEGRATION IN THE WEST AFTER 1863.
Although Alexander
THE POLICY OF FORCED INTEGRATION IN THE WEST AFTER 1863.
Although Alexander
The Russian reaction to the Polish uprising (1863) was considerably more severe. In Congress Poland and in the western provinces about 400 rebels were executed, about 2500 were sentenced to hard labour, and about 20000 deported to Russia and Siberia or sent to join penal companies. About 3500 estates belonging to Polish nobles were confiscated.
In the years after 1863 the last vestiges of the Kingdom of Poland’s special status were abolished step by step. Even the name Poland was eradicated, the region was called Privislinskii krai. The Polish authorities were abolished, Polish as an official language was replaced by Russian. Whereas the judiciary was brought into line with the Russian system, Polish civil law, which was based on the Code Napoleon, was retained.
The repression of the Catholic clergy also went against the traditional policy of tolerance. Most of the bishops were dismissed, the property of the church was secularized, monasteries were closed down and there was a ban on contacts with Rome.
The government banned Lithuanian, Belorussian and Ukrainian languages. In 1863 minister
The government banned Lithuanian, Belorussian and Ukrainian languages. In 1863 minister
About 60000 Catholics were converted to the Orthodox faith.
The 1860s also saw the introduction of changes in the Baltic provinces. Administrative pressure on the Baltic provinces increased. In 1867 Russian was introduced as an official language of state institutions.
The new method of integration in the east was taken place. N. Ilminsky in 1863 established in Kazan a model school far baptized Tatars, with tuition in the Tatar language, and subjects which were mainly Christian in character. Ilminsky created Cyrillic alphabets for numerous languages, such as Chuvash, Cheremis, Kazakh, Iakut. Numerous Christian texts were translated into these languages and published. Numerous native-language schools were established in the Volga-Urals region, in Siberia and in Kazahkstan in order to nurture new elites on which Russia could rely. In 1872 a teachers seminary for non-Russians was founded in Kazan under the direction of Ilminsky.
Most of reforms of the 1860s-1870s were also introduced in Bessarabia
Most of reforms of the 1860s-1870s were also introduced in Bessarabia
The special status of the foreign (primarily German) colonists living in the south of Russia and Ukraine was abolished. In 1871 their self-administrative bodies were dissolved, Russian became an official language, the colonists were incorporated into the category of peasants.
From the 1860s onwards Transcaucasia continued to be integrated in administrative terms. Judical reform and municipal reform were introduced and in 1883 the office of viceroy was abolished. The Georgian and Muslim nobility and the Armenian merchants had been incorporated into the Russian order of estate, and subsequently the two Christian people, though not the Muslims, became the target of cultural russification.
The situation of the Orthodox Georgians was worse than that of the loyal Gregorian Armenians. The Georgian Church was a part of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Georgian-speaking school system had largely been replaced by the Russian-speaking one. In 1882 the use of the term Georgia in print was forbidden. The national movement which championed the Georgian language, and Georgian literature and culture, successfully opposed this repressive policy
ALEXANDER III (1881-1894).
Under Alexander III, whose reign was characterized by political
ALEXANDER III (1881-1894).
Under Alexander III, whose reign was characterized by political
The systematic policy of standartization in the Baltic provinces was begun. Russian as the official language was introduced in many more areas, such as the internal operation of municipal administration, the Russian police system was introduced in 1888, and the Russian judicial reforms (with Russian as the language of the courts) in 1889. There was greater pressure on the Lutheran church. In schools Russian became the language of instruction at all levels. In 1893 the German University of Dorpat was transformed into the Russian University of Iurev. Only the theological faculty continued to use German.
Finland became the object of the Russian policy of standartization far
Finland became the object of the Russian policy of standartization far
Administrative reforms introduced between 1898 and 1901 curtailed the autonomy of the inorodtsy in a number of Siberian provinces. In case of the Buriats the administration was partly brought into line with that of Russian peasant communities.
After 1895 Armenian Gregorian Church, church elementary schools, welfare associations and libraries were closed down
THE JEWS.
The Jewish question was at the centre of the debate
THE JEWS.
The Jewish question was at the centre of the debate
The policies pursued by the government had increased the level of discrimination and exclusion, anti-Semitism was gaining ground in Russian society as a whole, and the Jews had initiated a national and socialist movement.
THE NATIONALITIES QUESTION AND THE REVOLUTIONS.
At the beginning of the XX
THE NATIONALITIES QUESTION AND THE REVOLUTIONS.
At the beginning of the XX
The events in St Petersburg on 9 January 1905 led to a reaction of the non-Russian periphery. The ensuing general strike spread to the cities of the West Russian provinces, brought hundreds of thousands of Polish and Jewish workers on the streets. It was accompanied by national demonstrations, above all by boycott of the Russian-language state secondary schools. In Transcaucasia the social and ethnic conflicts became more widespread during the revolution. The strikes started in Baku and spread to Tiflis, Batumi and other towns. The Baltic provinces were among the regions with the largest number of strikes in the revolutionary year. Agrarian revolts shattered Ukraine and the Kingdom of Poland.
A number of non-Russian ethnic groups in the east of the
A number of non-Russian ethnic groups in the east of the
The revolution of 1905 imparted significant impulses to all the national movements in the Russian Empire. Russia after a period of repressive assimilation policies, once again returned to the traditional pattern of flexible pragmatism. There followed a series of concessions in the area of language policy (with regard to Polish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, Armenian, German, Estonian and Latvian) and the abrogation of the Ukaz against Finland and Armenia, which had been promulgated a few years earlier. The October Manifesto permitted national organizations, and national communication and agitation, and thus created the preconditions for the growth of the national movements. Numerous new organizations and parties were founded.
THE REVOLUTION OF 1917.
The fate of Tsarist power in Russia
THE REVOLUTION OF 1917.
The fate of Tsarist power in Russia
The revolution of 1917 was a social revolution and the national movements unleashed in February combined national and social demands.
The February revolution led to the liberalization of the policy on nationalities. All citizens of Russia were granted civil rights and liberties, and individual national and cultural rights. The discrimination exclusion laws, especially the ones which applied to the Jews and the inorodtsy were repealed. Autonomy was restored to Finland and to the Kingdom of Poland. However, the other nations of the Russian Empire were not granted collective territorial rights. The Provisional Government rejected demands for autonomy, and a solution of the problem deferred to the Constituent Assembly. This delaying tactics led to a continual and growing radicalization of the social and national movements on the periphery.
The Poles and Lithuanians, and some of the Belorussians, Ukrainians, Latvians
The Poles and Lithuanians, and some of the Belorussians, Ukrainians, Latvians
In 1917 the Ukrainian movement expanded with remarkable speed. In Kiev, a mere week after the February Revolution, representatives of various different social groups founded the Ukrainian Central Council (Rada), a proto-parliament presided over by the historian M. Grushevsky which a few weeks later was legitimated by a National Congress and expressed its loyalty to the Provisional Government. Acting under pressure from the mass movement the central Rada made more radical demands and on 10 June declared Ukraine to be autonomous. The decree was entitled the 1st Universal. The Provisional Government was forced to relent and recognized the Rada as de facto representatives of the Ukrainian nation. For the cadets this concession was unacceptable, so they withdrew their members from the government. In the summer these concessions were no longer enough for the mobilized Ukrainian masses. They wanted to see solutions for their social problems. The populist radical Ukrainian Social Revolutionary party by the autumne had become the leading political force.
In the case of Belorussians, who were partly under German occupation,
In the case of Belorussians, who were partly under German occupation,
The Baltic provinces were also partly occupied by German troops. In the area of Livonia, in Estonia, Latvians and Estonians were encouraged by the February Revolution to engage in political activity. They had a number of Congresses and founded new parties, which mainly demanded self-government and political autonomy.
In Finland the diet, with had a social - democrat majority had declared itself to be the supreme power in July, leaving only foreign policy and the army under the control of Russian centre. The Provisional Government would not accept this substantial increase in the autonomy of Finland, and dissolved the parliament.
The Romanians in Bessarabia had also been drawn into the war in 1916. A Moldavian national Party was founded after the February Revolution. It made demands for autonomy, and in the autumn there was an upsurge in irredentist activities which sought to bring about reunification with Romania.
The year 1917 was relatively quite in Transcaucasia, which also lay
The year 1917 was relatively quite in Transcaucasia, which also lay
The Muslims of Russia continued to sustain the moderate movement which they had embraced in 1905. The Union of Muslims with its liberal and pan-Islamic orientation initially continued to be the most important force. In May 1917 about thousand elected delegates met in Moscow at the First All-Russian Congress of Muslims. A majority decided to support the federal programme.
The Muslims of Turkestan were also mobilized politically in 1917. The most important was the Muslim Central Council of Turkestan.
The Kazakhs had assembled at a congress in Orenburg as early as April 1917 and in the summer had founded a political party the Alash Orda. They demanded the autonomy, an end to colonization, and even the expulsion of new settlers.
The Crimea Tatars founded a national party which demanded autonomy. The
The Crimea Tatars founded a national party which demanded autonomy. The
In May there was a congress of small peoples on the middle Volga. It was attended by more than 500 representatives from the Chuvash, Cheremis, Votiaks, Mordvinians, Zyrians, Kalmyks and baptized Tatars. The delegates declared their solidarity with the provisional Government and placed the emphasis on cultural and linguistic demands.
Thus almost all of the non-Russians of the Russian Empire in 1917 witnessed an explosion of national movements.
Most of the national parties of the non-Russian periphery initially adopted
Most of the national parties of the non-Russian periphery initially adopted
In addition to the policies by the Bolsheviks the war made
In addition to the policies by the Bolsheviks the war made
Thus it was a combination of internal and external factors which led to the rapid disintegration of the Empire.
After the end of the 1st World War the Bolsheviks attempted to recover control of the lost peripheral areas by means of uprisings and with armed force. Nonetheless their situation continued to deteriorate until the late summer of 1919. Soviet Russia had lost almost all of the territories which had been acquired since the XVII century: Siberia, the Baltic provinces, Ukraine, large part of Belorussia, Lithuania, Poland, Finland, Bessarabia, almost the whole of the Steppe, the Caucasus region and the Middle Asia.
USSR AS A MULTIETHNIC STATE.
The end of the Civil War led
USSR AS A MULTIETHNIC STATE.
The end of the Civil War led
There are many reasons of the Bolsheviks victory: the primarily Russian national and socially reactionary programmes of the Whites and the foreign interventionist powers, who had little to offer when compared to the Bolsheviks, who held out the promise of social justice and also displayed increasing flexibility in the face of national demands, the attendant support for the Bolsheviks that was forthcoming from the majority of the largely Russian industrial proletariat, and the fact that they were tolerated as the lesser evil by large sections of the peasantry, the organization of the communist Party and the effectiveness of the red army, whose power was used in a relentless manner.
The gathering of the lands of the tsarist empire by the Bolsheviks was carried out with the well-tied methods of the carrot and the stick.
As early as 1918 Lenin returned to the principle of federalism
As early as 1918 Lenin returned to the principle of federalism
The order of the new federal state was based on territories
The order of the new federal state was based on territories
THE GOLDEN TWENTIES.
In the early years of the Soviet Union it
THE GOLDEN TWENTIES.
In the early years of the Soviet Union it
Early soviet policy on nationalities, for which Stalin was responsible as people’s commissar, replaced the principle of self-determination with that of the equality of the peoples within the federal union. The aim was also to achieve equality on a socio-economic and socio-cultural level in order to overcome the backwardness of the less developed ethnic groups.
The central government sought to cooperate with the loyal non-Russian elites,
The central government sought to cooperate with the loyal non-Russian elites,
This policy was known as korenizatsiia: the systematic increase in the
This policy was known as korenizatsiia: the systematic increase in the
In 1920s the policy on nationalities also returned to the tradition of tolerance towards non-Russian languages and cultures. Indeed, by deliberately encouraging the development of smaller languages it went even further. For 48 ethnic groups a new written language was devised for the very first time (Turkmen, Bashkirs, Chechens) and for the smaller ethnic groups in Siberia. Non-Russian languages began to be used in the administration and the courts, and in educational institutions. Towards the end of the 1920s it was an introduction of Latin characters for 70 languages. The preference for Latin as opposed to Cyrillic characters marked a break with the late tsarist period, which had encouraged Russian onesidedly.
Schools using native languages were established everywhere in order to combat illiteracy. Local languages also began to be used in intermediate schools and higher education and this increased the size of non-Russian elites. At the same time it was support for publications in the native languages. In 1933 37% of the total number of newspapers were published in the native languages.
This policy was designed to ensure the stability of the multiethnic empire. Native language schools and publications were designed to spread Communist ideology among non-Russians. This policy was lasted until the mid 1930s
STALIN’S POLICY ON NATIONALITIES.
The New economic policy achieved the reconstruction of
STALIN’S POLICY ON NATIONALITIES.
The New economic policy achieved the reconstruction of
At the same time the purges of the Ukrainian elite who
At the same time the purges of the Ukrainian elite who
At the end of the 1930s the republics were placed under the full control of the central government and soviet federalism became a total sham. The policy of korenization and cooperation with non-Russian elites was discontinued, and the share of native inhabitants in the party and Soviet organizations of the republics once again declined.
Liberal cultural policy were terminated, the educational system was unified, socialist realism also appeared in all soviet republics.
From the end of the 1930s onwards the Russian language was
From the end of the 1930s onwards the Russian language was
The non-Russian peoples participated less than the Russians in the increasingly swift modernization of the Soviet Union. The economy and administration were centralized, the control exercised by the party and the secret police grew uncreasingly, the national cultures were forced to tie the line. Practically the whole of the new political and intellectual elite of the non-Russian nations was eradicated by means of forcible collectivization and purges. Since the majority of the non-Russian nations possessed only a relatively small number of educated people, they were once again largely without a native elite by the end of 1930s.
The deportation during the second World war constituted a new climax
The deportation during the second World war constituted a new climax
Following in the footsteps of the tsarist empire, the Hitler-Stalin pact
Following in the footsteps of the tsarist empire, the Hitler-Stalin pact
In the case of Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Bessarabia and large part of Karelia further territories of the tsarist empire were reunited with the Soviet Union. To this were added the northern part of east Prussia, and Tannu-Tuva in the east. Large part of the non-Russian elite in the annexed territories were deported, and their place was taken by Russian immigrants, especially cadres and industrial workers.
The Stalinist period marked a greater break with the past than the revolution, for their traditional social orders and cultures were now destroyed. Stalinist policies departed from the old patterns of cooperation with non-Russian elites and cultural tolerance, taking their bearings more from the late tsarist era by emphasizing modernization, centralization and unification.
DESTALINIZATION AND THE FORMATION OF NEW NATIONAL ELITES.
After the death of
DESTALINIZATION AND THE FORMATION OF NEW NATIONAL ELITES.
After the death of
In the three decades after the death of Stalin social, economic and cultural developments were of greater importance than the policy of nationalities. In most European nations the natural increase in the population went into swift decline, it increased dramatically in the case of the Asiatic peoples, and especially in that of the Muslims. Their share of the total population rose to reach almost 20% in 1989. Russian migration continued until 1960s, especially to Kazakhstan, where in 1979 the Kazakhs constituted no more than 36% of the population. From the 1970s onwards the number of Russians and other immigrants in Middle Asia and Transcaucasia began to increase. The influx of Russian industrial workers and cadres in the west continued unabated, and in small Estonia the Russians already constituted 28% of the population in 1979, in Latvia – 33 %.
The industrial development of the Soviet Union and with it the
The industrial development of the Soviet Union and with it the
The soviet government in the post-Stalinist era was less concerned with the welfare of the mass of the Russians than with the power and privileges of the ruling elite. Russian population saw itself as an unprivileged majority.
Continuing economic development changed the social structure of the peoples of the Soviet Union. Above all it was the expansion of the educational system which led to the creation of sizeable and educated elites. The difference in the levels of education diminished, the Muslims and the traditional peasant nations began to catch up rather quickly. According to statistics published in 1980-1981, at least ten nationalities had a higher percentage of students than Russians, among them: Buriats, Iakuts, Kalmyks, Kabarninians and Kazakhs. The social mobilization of non-Russians made the Russian cadres, who had been sent to the peripheral areas ever since the time of Stalin, more and more superfluous. In fact, they impeded the social mobility of non-Russians.
Hopes of rapid internationalization and the formation of a new historical
Hopes of rapid internationalization and the formation of a new historical
Yet there continued to be significant differences between the various nations. Whereas the Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Georgians, Armenians and also the majority of the Muslim groups displayed a high degree of ethnic stability, Russification was more pronounced in the case of the Ukrainians, the Belorussians, the Tatars, the Jews and the Germans. In the case of certain smaller ethnic groups, such as the Moldavanians and the Karelians, the speed of assimilation led to a quantative decline. However, most of the non-Russian intellectuals were very active, reviving national languages, literatures and scholarships, the national cultural heritage and national consciousness, in so far as this was possible within the limits set by the official ideology, and above all by the axiom of the friendship of the peoples. In the course of time the new national elites, who increasingly came up against the limits set by Moscow, and against Russian cadres who observed national ambitions with suspicion, became more and more frustrated.
However, Non-Russians were now once again able to make better use
However, Non-Russians were now once again able to make better use
The national illegal movements reached different levels of intensity in the
The national illegal movements reached different levels of intensity in the
Of the nations which had their own republic, only the Lithuanians had a mass movement in the 1960s and 1970s. It was based on the identity of national and religious demands, and had the support of the Catholic clergy. The Chronicle of the Lithuanian Catholic Church became one of the most important regular samizdat publications.
In the case of other nations smaller circles of intellectuals organized
In the case of other nations smaller circles of intellectuals organized
Opposition in Georgia, Armenia, Estonia and Latvia concentrated primarily on cultural and linguistic problems. There were demonstrations against linguistic Russifiction. Among the Muslim nations national movements played a minor role, though their resistance manifested itself in adherence to Islamic lifestyles, and in part in the revival of Sufic brotherhoods. Until the middle of 1980s none of the national movements seemed capable of bringing down the system
PERESTROIKA AND THE COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET UNION.
In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev
PERESTROIKA AND THE COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET UNION.
In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev
In 1986, as part of the purge of the corrupt power elite in the Middle Asia, the party leader of Kazakhstan, Kunaev was replaced by a Russian, as a result there were violent demonstrations by Kazakhs in Almaty. There were the first openly national disturbances. Thereafter the nationalities policy of the government in Moscow continued to lag behind the events as they unfolded, and it attempted unsuccessfully to regain control of the situation using traditional methods of the carrot and the stick.
The 1988 witnessed an explosion of national conflicts. The Armenians, whose
The 1988 witnessed an explosion of national conflicts. The Armenians, whose
In the course of 1988 Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians took over
In the course of 1988 Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians took over
The rapidly radicalized movements of the Romanians in the Moldavanian Republic also based its claims on the annexation of 1940, and initially succeeded in reestablishing the use of the Romanian language (in Latin characters). It was opposed by Ukrainian, Russian and Gagauz minorities.
In Ukraine the national movement needed slightly more time in order
In Ukraine the national movement needed slightly more time in order
The Belorussian national movement had acquired a fairly large following by 1988 was a surprise. Here the discovery of mass graves of the victims of Stalin’s secret policy played a crucial role.
In Middle Asia the national and Islamic movements remained largely beneath the surface, and here initiatives which aimed at achieving national emancipation came from above. The extent of the ethno-social conflicts in Middle Asia, which was overpopulated, economically under-developed and ecological disaster, was emphasized by a series of violent clashes. As early as 1989 there were pogroms in the Uzbek section of the Fergana valley directed against the Meskhetians, who had been deported to the area by Stalin. In the following year there were interethnic conflicts in Tadzhikistan, and again in the Fergana valley, particularly bloody clashes between Kirgiz and Uzbeks.
All the republics of the Union had declared themselves to be
All the republics of the Union had declared themselves to be