Russia in the first half of the XIXth century

1801, when Emperor Paul I was killed as a result of a conspiracy, the question of the accession to the Russian throne of his eldest son Alexander Pavlovich was resolved. He was privy to the plot. Hopes were pinned on the new monarch to carry out liberal reforms and soften the regime of personal power.
Emperor Alexander I was brought up under the supervision of his grandmother, Catherine II. He was familiar with the ideas of the enlighteners - Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau. However, Alexander Pavlovich never separated the idea of ​​equality and freedom from autocracy. This half-heartedness became a feature of both the transformations and the reign of Emperor Alexander I. His very first manifestos testified to the adoption of a new political course. It proclaimed the desire to rule according to the laws of Catherine II, remove restrictions on trade with England, contained the announcement of amnesty and the reinstatement of persons repressed under Paul I.
All work related to the liberalization of life was concentrated in the so-called. The secret committee, which brought together friends and associates of the young emperor - P.A. Stroganov, V.P. Kochubei, A. Chartorysky and N.N. Novosiltsev - adherents of constitutionalism. The committee existed until 1805. It was mainly engaged in preparing a program for the emancipation of the peasants from serfdom and reforming the state system. The result of this activity was the law of December 12, 1801, which allowed state peasants, bourgeois and merchants to acquire unpopulated land, and the decree of February 20, 1803 "On free farmers", which gave the landowners the right, at their desire, to release the peasants at will land for ransom.

bodies of state power. Ministries were established in the country: the military, land forces, finance and public education, the State Treasury and the Committee of Ministers, which received a single structure and were based on the principle of one-man command. Since 1810, in accordance with the project of a prominent statesman of those years M.M. Speransky, the State Council began to operate. However, Speransky could not carry out a consistent principle of separation of powers. The State Council has turned from an intermediate body into a legislative chamber appointed from above. The reforms of the early 19th century did not affect the foundations of autocratic power in the Russian Empire.
In the reign of Alexander I, the Kingdom of Poland, annexed to Russia, was granted a constitution. The constitutional act was also presented to the Bessarabian region. Finland, which also became part of Russia, received its legislative body - the Seim - and a constitutional structure. Thus, constitutional rule already existed in part of the territory of the Russian Empire, which inspired hopes for its spread throughout the country. In 1818, the development of the "Charter of the Russian Empire" even began, but this document never saw the light of day.
In 1822 the emperor lost interest in state affairs, work on reforms was curtailed, and among the advisers of Alexander I stood out the figure of a new temporary worker - A.A. Arakcheev, who became the first person in the state after the emperor and ruled as an all-powerful favorite. The consequences of the reform activities of Alexander I and his advisers were insignificant. The unexpected death of the emperor in 1825 at the age of 48 was the reason for an open speech on the part of the most advanced part of Russian society, the so-called Decembrists, against the foundations of autocracy.

a terrible test for the whole of Russia - the war of liberation against Napoleonic aggression. The war was caused by the desire of the French bourgeoisie for world domination, a sharp exacerbation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions in connection with the wars of conquest of Napoleon I, Russia's refusal to participate in the continental blockade of Great Britain. The agreement between Russia and Napoleonic France, concluded in the city of Tilsit in 1807, was of a temporary nature. This was understood both in St. Petersburg and in Paris, although many dignitaries of the two countries were in favor of maintaining peace. However, the contradictions between the states continued to accumulate, which led to an open conflict on June 12 (24), 1812, about 500 thousand Napoleonic soldiers crossed the Neman River and invaded Russia. Napoleon rejected Alexander I's proposal for a peaceful solution to the conflict if he withdraws his troops. This is how the Patriotic War began, so called because not only the regular army fought against the French, but almost the entire population of the country in the militia and partisan detachments.
The Russian army consisted of 220 thousand people, and it was divided into three parts. The first army - under the command of General M.B. Barclay de Tolly - was in Lithuania, the second - General Prince P.I.Bagration - in Belarus, and the third army - General A.P. Tormasov - in Ukraine. Napoleon's plan was extremely simple and consisted in routing the Russian armies piece by piece with powerful blows.
The Russian armies retreated to the east in parallel directions, retaining their strength and exhausting the enemy in rearguard battles. On August 2 (14), the armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration joined up in the Smolensk region. Here, in a difficult two-day battle, the French troops lost 20 thousand soldiers and officers, the Russians - up to 6 thousand people.

army continued its retreat, leading the enemy into the interior of the country. At the end of August 1812, instead of Minister of War M.B. Barclay de Tolly, a student and associate of A.V.Suvorov M.I.Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. Alexander I, who disliked him, was forced to take into account the patriotic sentiments of the Russian people and the army, general discontent with the retreat tactics chosen by Barclay de Tolly. Kutuzov decided to give a general battle to the French army near the village of Borodino, 124 km west of Moscow. On August 26 (September 7), the battle began. The Russian army was faced with the task of exhausting the enemy, undermining its combat power and morale, and in case of success - to undertake a counteroffensive itself. Kutuzov chose a very good position for the Russian troops. The right flank was defended by a natural obstacle - the Koloch River, and the left - by artificial earth fortifications - by flashes occupied by the troops of Bagration. In the center were located the troops of General N.N. Raevsky, as well as artillery positions. Napoleon's plan provided for a breakthrough of the defense of the Russian troops in the area of ​​Bagrationovskie flashes and the encirclement of Kutuzov's army, and when it was pressed against the river, it was completely destroyed. Eight attacks were made by the French against the flushes, but they could not completely capture them. They only managed to advance slightly in the center, destroying Rayevsky's batteries. In the midst of the battle in the central direction, the Russian cavalry made a daring raid behind enemy lines, which sowed panic in the ranks of the attackers. Napoleon did not dare to deploy his main reserve, the old guard, to turn the tide of the battle. The battle of Borodino ended late in the evening, and the troops retreated to their previously occupied positions. Thus, the battle was a political and moral victory for the Russian army. 1 (13) September in Fili, at a meeting of the command staff, Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow in order to keep the army. Napoleonic troops entered Moscow and stayed there until October 1812.

maneuver", thanks to which Napoleon lost the ability to track the locations of the Russians. In the village of Tarutino, Kutuzov's army was replenished by 120 thousand people, significantly strengthened its artillery and cavalry. In addition, it actually closed the way for the French troops to Tula, where the main weapons arsenals and food depots were located. During its stay in Moscow, the French army was demoralized by hunger, looting, and fires that engulfed the city. In the hope of replenishing his arsenals and food supplies, Napoleon was forced to withdraw his army from Moscow. On the way to Maloyaroslavets on October 12 (24), Napoleon's army suffered a serious defeat and began to retreat from Russia along the Smolensk road, already devastated by the French themselves. At the final stage of the war, the tactics of the Russian army consisted in the parallel pursuit of the enemy. Russian troops, without engaging in battle with Napoleon, destroyed his retreating army in parts. The French also suffered from the winter frosts, for which they were not ready, since Napoleon hoped to end the war before the cold weather. The war of 1812 culminated in the battle at the Berezina River, which ended in the defeat of Napoleon's army.
On December 25, 1812, in St. Petersburg, Emperor Alexander I promulgated a manifesto, which said that the Patriotic War of the Russian people against the French invaders ended in complete victory and the expulsion of the enemy.
The Russian army took part in the overseas campaigns of 1813-1814, during which, together with the Prussian, Swedish, British and Austrian armies, finished off the enemy in Germany and France. The campaign of 1813 ended with the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig. After the capture of Paris by the allied forces in the spring of 1814, Napoleon I abdicated the throne.

of Russia was the period of the formation of the revolutionary movement and its ideology. After the overseas campaigns of the Russian army, advanced ideas began to penetrate into the Russian Empire. The first secret revolutionary organizations of the nobility appeared. Most of them were military - officers of the guard. The first secret political society was founded in 1816 in St. Petersburg under the name "Union of Salvation", which was renamed the following year into the "Society of True and Faithful Sons of the Fatherland." Its members were the future Decembrists AI Muravyov, MI Muravyov-Apostol, PI Pestel, SP Trubetskoy and others. The goal they set for themselves was a constitution, representation, and the elimination of serfdom. However, this society was still small in number and could not fulfill the tasks that it set for itself.
In 1818, on the basis of this self-liquidating society, a new one was created - the Union of Welfare. It was already a more numerous secret organization, numbering more than 200 people. It was organized by F.N. Glinka, F.P. Tolstoy, M.I.Muraviev-Apostol. The organization was ramified: its cells were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Tambov, in the south of the country. The goals of the society remained the same - the introduction of representative government, the elimination of autocracy and serfdom. Members of the Union saw the way to achieve their goal in the propagation of their views and proposals sent to the government. However, they never heard a response.

two new secret organizations, established in March 1825. One was founded in St. Petersburg and received the name "Northern Society". Its creators were N.M. Muraviev and N.I. Turgenev. Another originated in Ukraine. This "Southern Society" was headed by PI Pestel. Both societies were interconnected and were actually a single organization. Each society had its own program document, the North - the "Constitution" of N.M. Muraviev, and the South - "Russian Truth", written by P.I. Pestel. These documents expressed a single goal - the destruction of autocracy and serfdom. However, the "Constitution" expressed the liberal nature of the reforms - with a constitutional monarchy, restriction of electoral rights and the preservation of landlord ownership, while "Russkaya Pravda" was radical, republican. She proclaimed a presidential republic, confiscation of landlords' land and a combination of private and public forms of ownership.

1826 during army exercises. But unexpectedly on November 19, 1825, Alexander I died, and this event prompted the conspirators to take active actions ahead of schedule.
After the death of Alexander I, his brother Konstantin Pavlovich was to become the Russian emperor, but even during the life of Alexander I, he abdicated in favor of his younger brother Nicholas. This was not officially announced, so initially both the state apparatus and the army swore allegiance to Constantine. But soon Constantine's renunciation of the throne was made public and a re-oath was appointed. therefore
members of the "Northern Society" decided to speak out on December 14, 1825 with the requirements laid down in their program, for which they intended to hold a demonstration of military force at the Senate building. An important task was to prevent the senators from taking the oath to Nikolai Pavlovich. Prince S.P. Trubetskoy was proclaimed the leader of the uprising.
On December 14, 1825, the first Moscow regiment came to Senate Square, led by members of the Northern Society, brothers Bestuzhev and Shchepin-Rostovsky. However, the regiment stood alone for a long time, the conspirators were inactive. The murder of the Governor-General of St. Petersburg M.A. Miloradovich, who had left for the rebels, became fatal - the uprising could no longer end peacefully. By mid-afternoon, a guards naval crew and a company of the Life Grenadier Regiment nevertheless joined the rebels.

out that the senators had already sworn allegiance to Nicholas I and left the Senate. Therefore, there was no one to present the "Manifesto", and Prince Trubetskoy never appeared on the square. Meanwhile, troops loyal to the government began shelling the insurgents. The uprising was suppressed, and arrests began. Members of the "Southern Society" tried to carry out an uprising in early January 1826 (the uprising of the Chernigov regiment), but it was brutally suppressed by the authorities. Five leaders of the uprising - P.I. Pestel, K.F. Ryleev, S.I.Muraviev-Apostol, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and P.G. Kakhovsky - were executed, the rest of its participants were exiled to hard labor in Siberia.
The uprising of the Decembrists was the first open protest in Russia, whose task was to radically reorganize society.

of Emperor Nicholas I is defined as the apogee of Russian autocracy. The revolutionary upheavals that accompanied the accession to the throne of this Russian emperor left their mark on all his activities. In the eyes of his contemporaries, he was perceived as a strangler of freedom, freethinking, as an unlimited ruler-despot. The emperor believed in the perniciousness of human freedom and the independence of society. In his opinion, the prosperity of the country could be ensured only through strict order, by the strict fulfillment of each subject of the Russian Empire by his duties, control and regulation of public life. Considering that the question of welfare can be solved only from above, Nicholas I formed the "Committee on December 6, 1826". The tasks of the committee included the preparation of draft laws for transformations. The year 1826 also saw the transformation of "His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery" into the most important body of state power and administration. The most important tasks were assigned to its II and III branches. The II department was supposed to deal with the codification of laws, and the III was to deal with the affairs of higher politics. To solve problems, it received a corps of gendarmes under the command and, thus, control over all aspects of public life. Almighty Count A.H. Benckendorf, who was close to the emperor, was placed at the head of the III department.

The high authorities were drowned in a sea of ​​papers and lost control over the course of affairs on the ground, which led to red tape and abuse. To solve the peasant question, ten secret committees were created, replacing each other. However, the result of their activities was insignificant. The most important measure in the peasant question can be considered the reform of the state village in 1837. The state peasants were given self-government, put in order and control over them. Taxation and land allotment were revised. In 1842, a decree was issued on obligated peasants, according to which the landowner received the right to release the peasants to freedom with the provision of land to them, but not for ownership, but for use. 1844 changed the position of peasants in the western regions of the country. But this was done not with the aim of improving the situation of the peasants, but in the interests of the authorities, striving trying to limit the influence of the local, opposition-minded non-Russian nobility.

and the gradual erosion of the estate system, changes in the social structure were also associated - the ranks giving the nobility were increased, and a new class state was introduced for the growing commercial and industrial strata - honorary citizenship.
Control over public life led to changes in the field of education. In 1828, a reform of lower and secondary educational institutions was carried out. Education was of a class character, i.e. school steps were separated from each other: primary and parish - for peasants, county - for urban inhabitants, gymnasium - for nobles. In 1835, a new university charter was issued, which reduced the autonomy of higher educational institutions.
The wave of European bourgeois revolutions in Europe in 1848-1849, which horrified Nicholas I, led to the so-called. The "gloomy seven years", when censorship control was tightened to the limit, the secret police raged. A shadow of despair loomed before the most progressive-minded people. This last stage of the reign of Nicholas I was, in fact, already the agony of the system that he created.

against the background of complications in the foreign policy situation in Russia associated with the aggravation of the Eastern question. The conflict was caused by problems related to trade in the Middle East, for which Russia, France and England fought. Turkey, in turn, was counting on revenge for the defeat in the wars with Russia. Austria did not want to miss its chance, wishing to expand its sphere of influence over the Turkish possessions in the Balkans.
The direct reason for the war was the old conflict between the Catholic and Orthodox churches over the right to control the holy places for Christians in Palestine. Backed by France, Turkey has refused to satisfy Russia's claims to the Orthodox Church's priority in this matter. In June 1853 Russia broke off diplomatic relations with Turkey and occupied the Danube principalities. In response, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia on October 4, 1853.
Turkey relied on the ongoing war in the North Caucasus and provided all kinds of assistance to the mountaineers who rebelled against Russia, including carrying out landings of its fleet on the Caucasian coast. In response to this, on November 18, 1853, the Russian flotilla under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet on the roadstead of Sinop Bay. This naval battle was the pretext for France and England to enter the war. In December 1853, a combined British and French squadron entered the Black Sea, and in March 1854 a declaration of war followed.