Anglo-american argumentation

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Source Material Getting Published in International Journals: Writing Strategies for European

Source Material

Getting Published in International Journals: Writing Strategies for European Social

Scientists
by Natalie Reid, (NOVA, 2010; Oslo)
www.amazon.com
www.nataliereid.com
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Why Writing in English is Different Theory of contrastive rhetoric The

Why Writing in English is Different
Theory of contrastive rhetoric
The “psychology of

reading”
Different expectations of readers and writers
“Writing is thought made visible”
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What writing in English demands Every sentence must be clear on

What writing in English demands

Every sentence must be clear on first

reading, for only one meaning.
An English paper is a self-contained universe. Everything that the reader needs to know must in the paper—and precisely where it belongs—so that the reader never, ever, gets confused.
The writer must frame everything: not only the paper but also every section and paragraph.
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[continued] Nothing in English is implicit. You must spell everything out,

[continued]

Nothing in English is implicit. You must spell everything out, and

define all terms when you first mention them.
An English paper creates an airtight empirical or theoretical proof. You do not narrate, discuss, or loosely theorize—instead, you tell the reader what you will or won’t do, then do it, then show the reader that you have done it and how you have done it.
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Your obligation as a writer You must never take reader knowledge

Your obligation as a writer

You must never take reader knowledge for

granted. Assume nothing. Put everything where it belongs, as if nothing exists in the universe beyond your paper.
WHY?
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Because… Academic English is the world’s only 100% writer-responsible language. In

Because…

Academic English is the world’s only 100% writer-responsible language. In English,

only the reader and the reader’s needs matter. If the reader has to think about the writing, to figure out what it means or where the writer is going, then the writing, by definition, is not acceptable.
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The Five Essential Strategies for Maximizing Your Publication Chances Analyzing journals

The Five Essential Strategies for Maximizing Your Publication Chances
Analyzing journals both

for elimination and for submission
Organizing and arguing in Aristotelian logic
Editing for strength (less is more)
Editing for clarity (clarity rules!)
Revising rigorously for language, clarity, argumentation, punctuation, etc.
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Organizing and Arguing in Aristotelian logic Argumentation according to Aristotle Five-paragraph

Organizing and Arguing in Aristotelian logic
Argumentation according to Aristotle
Five-paragraph essay model
John

Swales’ CARS model:
Establish the territory
Establish the niche
Occupy the niche (i.e., purpose statement)
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Paragraphing All English paragraphs must have a topic sentence (a framing

Paragraphing

All English paragraphs must have a topic sentence (a framing sentence).

It tells the reader what the paragraph is going to be about.
Ex: “What constitutes a paragraph—and what specific weight a paragraph carries—depends on the rhetorical tradition within a linguistic community.”
Ex: “Three factors are involved in studying X: 1, 2, and 3.”
Ex: “Caring for the very ill involves heavy physical and mental demands on professional caregivers.”
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Paragraphs, cont. US and UK paragraph styles often differ. The reader

Paragraphs, cont.

US and UK paragraph styles often differ.
The reader must be

able to absorb the contents of a paragraph in one reading, without having to pause for a break mid-way. A very long paragraph is unreadable.
Paragraphs must be tightly focused.
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Paragraphs, cont. Analyze your journal of choice for paragraph length. As

Paragraphs, cont.

Analyze your journal of choice for paragraph length.
As a default

position, keep all—or at least most—of your paragraphs no longer than 12-14 lines of type.
Just as you should always vary the length of your sentences, vary the length of your paragraphs.
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Arguing according to Aristotle “What you should do in your introduction

Arguing according to Aristotle

“What you should do in your introduction is

to state your subjects, in order that the point to be judged may be quite plain; in the epilogue you should summarize the argument by which your case has been proved.”
—Aristotle
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What Aristotle did Systematized the study of rhetoric Defined rhetoric as

What Aristotle did

Systematized the study of rhetoric
Defined rhetoric as the “art

of finding the best available means of persuasion in any situation”
Conceived of persuasion as a strategy
Laid out three distinct tactics for making an argument:
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Three strategic tactics for an Aristotelian argument Ethos (showing the speaker’s

Three strategic tactics for an Aristotelian argument

Ethos (showing the speaker’s

trustworthiness)
Pathos (appealing to the values most deeply held—and the emotions most deeply felt—by a particular audience)
Logos (using logical, sound reasoning)
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What Aristotle also did Developed the concepts of inductive and deductive

What Aristotle also did

Developed the concepts of inductive and deductive reasoning
Discussed

and emphasized the critical importance of clarity (no clarity, no logos!), including various kinds of sentence structure and language
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So we come, again, to “WRITING IS THOUGHT MADE VISIBLE” Translation:

So we come, again, to

“WRITING IS THOUGHT MADE VISIBLE”
Translation: “If you

can’t say what you mean, you don’t know what you mean; and if you can’t say it clearly, you obviously can’t think clearly.”
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The three major keys to English argumentation Analysis: breaking down things

The three major keys to English argumentation

Analysis: breaking down things and

ideas into clear, meaningful parts
Synthesis: combining diverse elements into a coherent whole
Framing
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What is an argument? Your argument is to your paper as

What is an argument?

Your argument is to your paper as a

story or a plot is to a novel: it is the skeleton that holds it together; it is the spine that allows it to stand upright; it is the only thing that matters. If anything—no matter how interesting—gets in the way of your argument, throw it out! But….
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[continued] …. But if what gets in the way of your

[continued]

…. But if what gets in the way of your argument

is important or useful, then your argument is flawed. You then need to either reconstruct it or scrap it entirely and find a better one.
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Avoid these two constructions It is argued that…. It is obvious that….

Avoid these two constructions
It is argued that….
It is obvious that….

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Determinants Your argument should determine what goes where in a paper

Determinants

Your argument should determine what goes where in a paper
But the

journal style must determine what goes where in your paper.
Therefore, you must structure your argument according to the format of the journal you have chosen.
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What Goes Where in a Paper Introduction (depending on journal) Necessary

What Goes Where in a Paper

Introduction (depending on journal)
Necessary background /

territory & niche
Purpose statement
Brief description of data set
Scope
(in certain fields) Results & conclusions
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Sample CARS model Territory: Most studies of ____ focus on the

Sample CARS model

Territory: Most studies of ____ focus on the relationship

between A and B.
Niche: However, almost no studies investigate the relationship between B and B+1, a relationship critical to our understanding of the important processes of XYZ.
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CARS (continued) Occupy niche with purpose statement: Using data from Denmark,

CARS (continued)

Occupy niche with purpose statement: Using data from Denmark, this

paper analyzes the relationship of B to B+1. More specifically, it applies [Famous Scholar X’s] theory of LMNOP to an examination of….
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Sample Purpose Statements This article discusses recent developments in [this] and

Sample Purpose Statements

This article discusses recent developments in [this] and analyzes

their effectiveness in terms of the theory of [that].
This study explores discourses about professional caregivers caring for [certain group of people] in [country] in [decade].
This paper argues and presents evidence that [this] is a more effective strategy than [that] during peaceful regime changes.
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CARS analysis of abstract published in “Health” (Jan. 2012) “Pharmaceutical products

CARS analysis of abstract published in “Health” (Jan. 2012)

“Pharmaceutical products are

commonly relied upon by professionals, and correspondingly patients, within a wide range of healthcare contexts. This dependence, combined with the inherent risk and uncertainty surrounding both medical practice and the drugs it harnesses, points towards the importance of trust in the pharmaceutical industry – a subject which has been much neglected by researchers. This article begins to address this deficiency by mapping out a conceptual framework which may form a useful basis for future research into this important topic….”
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Sample Introduction Analysis Introduction: 6-9 paragraphs (but sometimes as few as

Sample Introduction Analysis

Introduction: 6-9 paragraphs (but sometimes as few as 4),

500-1200 words (mostly on longer side)
Often begins with a research question, contention, or empirical phenomenon (first sentence):
—How can A do B?
—The questions XYZ are a central topic in literature ABC.
—Relationship between A & B has gained increased attention in recent literature.
—A contention of theory XYZ is that factors A & B can best explain Result C.
—A is much more frequent than B.
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Sample Analysis, cont. The rest of the paragraphs, except the last,

Sample Analysis, cont.

The rest of the paragraphs, except the last, follow

the “territory-niche-occupy niche” structure:
—First 1-3 paragraphs usually cover literature strands (territory)
• Old literature has highlighted the importance of A, B, & C.
• New literature has explored D, E, & F.
—Next 1-3 paragraphs show what remain unclear theoretically/ methodologically or econometrically (establish niche)
• Literature 1 + 2 draw critical attention to....
• Relationship between A + B and A + C (or B + C) remains unclear. (theoretical argument)
• Furthermore, methodological problems are not resolved.
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Sample Analysis, cont. —Final 1-3 paragraphs (except last) explain how this

Sample Analysis, cont.

—Final 1-3 paragraphs (except last) explain how this paper

solves the problem (occupies niche) and includes description of data, definitions, etc.
• We emphasize A, B, C....
• Building on these perspectives, I explore A + B + C.
- I define term XYZ as....
- I test data ABC with....
• The current study responds to challenges with theoretical and empirical contributions. We argue that Theoretical Argument 1, Methodological Argument 2, Data 3....
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Sample Analysis, cont. —The last paragraph names contributions of the paper

Sample Analysis, cont.

—The last paragraph names contributions of the paper (2

to 4-5 arguments):
• By examining XYZ..., I make several contributions: 1, 2, 3....
• Our findings indicate...Contribution 1, 2, 3....
• This article makes several contributions to the literature:
First.... Second....
This paragraph often ends with very short overall conclusions/lessons learned:
• Overall RESULTS foster research discussion.
• RESULTS help to solve practical problems.
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Guidelines from “Childhood” “The Introduction (no heading) should clearly state the

Guidelines from “Childhood”

“The Introduction (no heading) should clearly state the purpose

of the article, give only strictly pertinent references, and not review the subject extensively. Material, Methods and Results must be presented in logical sequence in the text, with text and illustrations emphasizing only important observations. The Discussion should emphasize new and important observations of the study and conclusions therefrom. Do not repeat in detail data from results. Include implications of the findings and their limitations, and relate observations to other relevant studies.”
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What Goes Where in a Paper Body (everything between the introduction

What Goes Where in a Paper

Body (everything between the introduction and

the conclusions)
necessary theory or background or literature review
methodology
data
results (plus robustness checks, etc.)
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What Goes Where in a Paper Conclusion Nothing new goes in

What Goes Where in a Paper

Conclusion
Nothing new goes in a conclusion!

It must derive solely and logically from the information and organization contained in the Body.
If the journal has a Discussion section....
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What Goes Where in a Paper Discussion / Recommendations for Future

What Goes Where in a Paper

Discussion / Recommendations for Future Research,

etc.
These sections must naturally come out of the Conclusions; that is, they must remain within the framework of all previous discussions (e.g., our study of X was limited to Country Z; future research should include other countries / additional environmental factors, such as....)
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The Abstract Should be presented first but written last Should never

The Abstract

Should be presented first but written last
Should never exceed journal’s

word limit. [Usually includes territory (if nec.), niche, purpose statement, results, conclusions, future research (if nec.)]
Should omit details
Must follow style of most common abstract pattern in journal
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Outlining Technique Decide on your purpose. Write a one-sentence purpose statement.

Outlining Technique

Decide on your purpose. Write a one-sentence purpose statement.
Brainstorm:

Tell the critical side of your brain to take a nap and write down every possible idea, theory, reference, method, etc., that could go in your paper. Let your mind range freely.
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Outlining [continued] 3. Become critical. Relate every item on your brainstorming

Outlining [continued]

3. Become critical. Relate every item on your brainstorming list

back to the purpose statement and eliminate all irrelevant ideas.
Look carefully at what remains on the list. If the list doesn’t really cover what you know you have to write,
then your purpose statement doesn’t accurately reflect your purpose. If necessary, rewrite your purpose statement and repeat all the steps to this point.
By the time you finish this step, you should be satisfied with both your purpose statement and your list.
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Outlining [continued] Group together all related items. (Each group will become

Outlining [continued]

Group together all related items.
(Each group will become a

paragraph or a series of paragraphs.)
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Outlining [continued] 5. Put the items in each group in a

Outlining [continued]

5. Put the items in each group in a logical order.
Add

any items that you suddenly realize you have left out.
Eliminate any items that turn out to be redundant or irrelevant.
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Outlining [continued] 6. Place all the groups in a logical sequence.

Outlining [continued]

6. Place all the groups in a logical sequence. (That sequence

will usually be directly related to the organization of sections in your journal of choice.)
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Abstract Analysis Why? Editor’s/reviewers’ first impression! • It contains the essence

Abstract Analysis

Why? Editor’s/reviewers’ first impression!
• It contains the essence of the

entire paper.
• Both online and in some fields, only few people read the entire paper.
• “A concise abstract should briefly state the purpose of the research and the main results.” [Journal of Health Economics, submission guidelines]
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Journal of Biomedical Science Abstract: “The Abstract of the manuscript should

Journal of Biomedical Science

Abstract:
“The Abstract of the manuscript should not exceed

350 words and must be structured into separate sections: Background, the context and purpose of the study; Results, the main findings; and Conclusions, brief summary and potential implications. Please minimize the use of abbreviations and do not cite references….”
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Analyzing Abstracts from Your Journal of Choice • First, consider sentence

Analyzing Abstracts from Your Journal of Choice

• First, consider sentence information:
What

does each sentence tell you in terms of the purpose, theory, method, data, findings, or conclusions of the paper?
• Second, consider sentence purpose: What is each sentence doing in its particular position in the abstract, what purpose does it serve, and how does it do so?
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Sample Abstract Analysis Almost always 4 sentences (sometimes 3), about 100

Sample Abstract Analysis

Almost always 4 sentences (sometimes 3), about 100 words
—First

sentence: (Data + question) typically is:
• Using...DATA, we found...RESULTS.
• With...DATA, we examine...QUESTION.
• Based on...DATA, we examine how A and B are related.
—Second & third sentences (Results 1 & 2) typically are:
• We discover...RESULT 1 (most important). We also found...RESULT 2 (corollary or secondary result).
• Findings of this study demonstrate RESULT 1 (negative relationship between X & Y). Variable Z...RESULT 2 (Var. Z moderated this effect).
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Sample Analysis, cont. • We found that...RESULT 1 (Var. X is

Sample Analysis, cont.

• We found that...RESULT 1 (Var. X is positively

related to Var. Y). Both Var. X and Var. Y moderate Var. Z.
—Fourth sentence (conclusion/consequence/lesson learned/additional result) typically is:
• These findings illustrate the benefits of applying Method A.
• Variable ZZ did not make a difference.
• We develop a theoretical framework and empirical approach for understanding how X and Y are related.
• We present a model based on two data sets that demonstrate how X reduces Y.
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Sample Abstract Analysis “Ethics, Problem Framing, and Training in Qualitative Inquiry”

Sample Abstract Analysis

“Ethics, Problem Framing, and Training in Qualitative Inquiry” by

Jan Nespor and Susan L. Groenke (Qualitative Inquiry, 2009):
This article examines the ethical issues bound up in the ways research problems are initially framed: the questions asked, the temporal and spatial frames of the study, the ways participants are defined. It explores the consequences of thinking through ethical issues using recent reconceptualizations of agency and suggests extensions of the ways researchers define participants for ethical purposes. The article concludes by examining some of the reasons for the relative neglect of such issues in graduate research preparation.
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Nespor & Groenke, cont. Using Purpose Phrases Method: —Purpose (This article

Nespor & Groenke, cont.

Using Purpose Phrases Method:
—Purpose (This article examines A

issues in framing three B problems: 1, 2, 3.)
—Refining of purpose/methodology (It explores the consequences of thinking through A issues using C methodology.)
—Conclusions (“The article concludes....”)
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Sample “Purpose Phrase” Abstract Abstract for presenting a new model (3-4

Sample “Purpose Phrase” Abstract

Abstract for presenting a new model (3-4

sentences)
Purpose (We present a model of....)
Explanation of model (Model exhibits # of features that....)
Conclusion (Model sheds light on A, as well as on B.)
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Another “Purpose Phrase” Abstract Classic abstract for just about any paper,

Another “Purpose Phrase” Abstract

Classic abstract for just about any paper, depending

on journal [5 sentences]
Background (“Until the early 1990s....”)
Territory (“At that time, X was happening”)
- Niche (“As conventional explanations of X have failed,” the authors use Y approach)
- Occupying niche (Y “clearly explains” what happened in these instances of X)
- Results/conclusions (“This analysis suggests....”)
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Difference between Results and Conclusions Results: Your specific findings Conclusions: Your

Difference between Results and Conclusions

Results: Your specific findings
Conclusions: Your interpretation or

analysis of what you found; your insights and well-considered opinions.
Ex: “Most Americans take it for granted that they will receive all the electricity they need for their homes and offices.”
Result or Conclusion?
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Preliminary Argumentation Editing Checklist Does my argument proceed logically? Is it

Preliminary Argumentation Editing Checklist

Does my argument proceed logically? Is it airtight?
Have

I named and countered all possible objections?
Have I considered and minimized all possible disadvantages?
Have I anticipated and answered all my reader’s likely questions?
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Preliminary Checklist, cont. Have I defined all my terms—and in the

Preliminary Checklist, cont.

Have I defined all my terms—and in the right

place (i.e., at first mention)?
Have I used any language with which my reader may not be familiar?
Have I proofread every word and punctuation mark?
Am I consistent in vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and grammar for UK or U.S. (or other) English?
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Most Important Does everything (e.g., # of tables, length of sections)

Most Important

Does everything (e.g., # of tables, length of sections) match

the style of the journal?
Have I followed the journal’s style/author guidelines (e.g., APA Style Manual, Chicago Style Manual) to the letter?
Has a properly skilled native speaker of English read and edited the final draft? [Not every native English-speaking scholar is a good academic stylist, nor is a neighbor’s American or British spouse with no training in editing or academic writing a wise choice.]
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Resubmission Letters Never assume that the editor remembers the content of

Resubmission Letters

Never assume that the editor remembers the content of your

paper or anything that he or she wrote to you.
Never make the editor have to go back and forth between two documents.
Therefore, always cut-and-paste the reviewers’ comments, with your revisions and comments following in a different font or format.
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Resubmission letters, cont. Use language such as I applied this helpful

Resubmission letters, cont.

Use language such as
I applied this helpful suggestion

to....
As referee 2 has suggested, I have changed....
This revision makes much more clear how we draw our conclusions.
Thanks to this comment, the revised article now more clearly focuses on....
Following reviewer 1’s suggestion, we have considerably reduced the extended example. We now link the case directly to both the theoretical framework and the practical consequences of X for [specific group].
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