History of English. Lecture 1

Август 2, 2022

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History of English. Lecture 1

Содержание

2. 1. The Subject and Aim of the Course. In studying the contemporary English language the learners
3. VOCABULARY
4. VOCABULARY We can notice a considerable likeness between English and German. E. sit – G. sitzen,
5. VOCABULARY In many cases English has a lot in common with French: E. river – Fr.
6. The Phonetic Structure of the Language Any student of English faces difficulties of reading and spelling
7. The Grammatical Structure History of English will explain why there are so few inflections in English,
8. The Purpose of this Subject So the purpose of this subject is a systematic study of
9. Classification of Germanic Languages The English language belongs to the Germanic languages which in their turn
10. Testimonies by Greek and Roman Writers The earliest of these was the Greek traveller and astronomer
11. Testimonies by Greek and Roman Writers Some data were given by Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) (in
12. Testimonies by Greek and Roman Writers The greatest value have the works by the Roman writer
13. 1. The Vindili Among them were the Goths, the Burgundians and the Vandals. They inhabited the
14. 1. The Vindili The Burgundians came to the mainland from the island of Bornholm in the
15. 2. The Ingvaeones (or Ingaevones). They inhabited the peninsular of Jutland (the mainland part of Denmark)
16. 3. The Iscavones (or Istaevones). They inhabited the western part of German territory on the Rhine.
17. 4. The Hermiones (or Herminones). They lived in the center and south of Germanic territory.
18. 5. The Peucini (певкины) (or Bastarnae). They lived close to what is now Roumania and very
19. 6. Hilleviones They inhabited Scandinavia.
20. Three Groups of Dialects 1. East Germanic – mainly spoken in central Europe (Gothic, Burgundian, Vandalic)
21. The First Consonant Shift The Common Germanic or The First Germanic Consonant Shift was formulated in
22. The First Consonant Shift This shift approximately happened between the 5th and the 2nd centuries BC
23. Three Groups of Correspondences I-E Germanic 1. p R. папа f E. father t R. три
24. The Causes of the Shift Some scholars explained it by physiological peculiarities of the Teutons, mainly
25. The Causes of the Shift Another explanation is based on the notion (понятие, представление) that every
26. Verner’s Law The correspondences marked by Grimm were regular only if the non-fixed IE stress fell
27. Verner’s Law It is read as follows : if any IE consonant was preceded by an
28. Rhotacism Similar modifications took place in the fricative s, which was first voiced into z and
29. Grammatical Alteration Alterations of voiceless and voiced consonants due to Verner’s law can be found within
30. The Second Consonant Shift It occurred between the 5th and 7th centuries AD in High German
31. The Second Consonant Shift It can be illustrated by the following examples: Common Germanic High German
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1. The Subject and Aim of the Course.
In studying the contemporary

English language the learners are faced with a lot of peculiarities which seem to be unintelligible.
These are found both in the vocabulary and in the phonetic and grammatical structure of the language. Let’s turn to some of them.

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VOCABULARY

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VOCABULARY
We can notice a considerable likeness between English and German.
E.

sit – G. sitzen,
E. winter – G.Winter,
E. long – G. lang,
E. apple – G. Apfel.

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VOCABULARY
In many cases English has a lot in common with French:

E. river – Fr. riviére,
E. change – Fr. changer,
E. courage – Fr. courage
The causes of such similarities belong to a more or less distant past and they can only be discovered by going into the history of the English language.

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The Phonetic Structure of the Language
Any student of English faces

difficulties of reading and spelling English.
Why, for instance, the sound [ʌ] is spelt u in cut, butter but o in brother, love? Only the history of the language can answer this and many other questions.

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The Grammatical Structure
History of English will explain why there are so

few inflections in English, how its “analytical” structure arose, why some nouns change the root-vowel in the plural and so on.

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The Purpose of this Subject
So the purpose of this subject is

a systematic study of the language’s development from the earliest times to the present day which will help the student to acquire a deeper understanding of the language of today.

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Classification of Germanic Languages
The English language belongs to the Germanic languages

which in their turn enter the vast Indo-European family. Nowadays Germanic languages are spoken in many countries.
We know that at the beginning of AD (наше время от лат. anno domini) Germanic tribes occupied vast territories in western, central and northern Europe.

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Testimonies by Greek and Roman Writers
The earliest of these was the

Greek traveller and astronomer Pytheas, who lived in the 4th century BC. He sailed from his native town Massilia (now Marseilles) through the Gibraltar, along the west coast of Gaul (France), along the Channel and he might have reached the Baltic.

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Testimonies by Greek and Roman Writers
Some data were given by Julius

Caesar (100-44 BC) (in his Commentaries on the War in Gaul) who fought with the Germans on the Rhine. He stated that the Teutons lived in tribes and were nomads (кочевники) in his time.

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Testimonies by Greek and Roman Writers
The greatest value have the

works by the Roman writer Pliny the Elder and the Roman historian Tacitus.
According to Pliny, Germanic tribes in the 1st century AD consisted of 6 groups.

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1. The Vindili
Among them were the Goths, the Burgundians and

the Vandals. They inhabited the eastern part of Germanic territory.
The Vandals first lived between the Oder and Vistula. Later they reached North Africa crossing Spain where their tribe name has the reflection in the name of the province “Андалузия” (from “Вандалусия”). The word “vandalism” taken from “vandals” shows the barbaric attitude towards items of culture.

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1. The Vindili
The Burgundians came to the mainland from the

island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea. At that time it was called “Бургундархольмр” (остров бургундов). Later they moved to the west and settled in the south-east of France in the province which is called Burgundia even nowadays.
The Goths lived on the territory from the Vistula to the shores of the Black Sea аnd formed mighty units of the tribes known as Ostgoths (остоготы) and Westgoths (визиготы).

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2. The Ingvaeones (or Ingaevones).
They inhabited the peninsular of Jutland

(the mainland part of Denmark) and the north-western part of German territory – the shores of the North Sea, including what is now the Netherlands. The Ingaevones gave rise to the further tribes of Jutes, Frisians, Angles and, probably, Saxons.

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3. The Iscavones (or Istaevones).
They inhabited the western part of

German territory on the Rhine. Among them were the Franks, who eventually conquered Gaul.

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4. The Hermiones (or Herminones).

They lived in the center and

south of Germanic territory.

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5. The Peucini (певкины) (or Bastarnae).
They lived close to what

is now Roumania and very early disappeared from history. Friderich Engels who also studied the history of Germanic tribes included this group of Pliny’s into the 1st group.

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6. Hilleviones
They inhabited Scandinavia.

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Three Groups of Dialects
1. East Germanic – mainly spoken in central

Europe (Gothic, Burgundian, Vandalic)
2. North Germanic – Old Norwegian, Old Danish, O. Swedish, O. Icelandic
3. West Germanic – the dialects of Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians.

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The First Consonant Shift
The Common Germanic or The First Germanic Consonant

Shift was formulated in the 19th century by the Danish scholar Rasmus Rask.
Later it was itemized by the great German linguist Jacob Grimm (1822). It was described in the second edition of his work “German Grammar”. So the First Consonant Shift is often called Grimm’s Law.

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The First Consonant Shift

This shift approximately happened between the 5th

and the 2nd centuries BC
This law reflects regular correspondences (соответствия) between the consonants of the Germanic and those of other I-E languages.

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Three Groups of Correspondences
I-E Germanic
1. p R. папа f E. father
t R. три þ [θ] E. three
k Lat.

noctem h Germ. Nacht
2. b R. болото p E. pool
d R. два t E. two
g R. иго k E. yoke
3. bh San. bhratar b E. brother
dh San. madhu d E. medu
gh Lat. hostis+ R. гость g E. guest

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The Causes of the Shift
Some scholars explained it by physiological peculiarities

of the Teutons, mainly the shape of their glottis (голосовая щель).
Others believed that it was caused by a more energetic articulation of sounds due to specifically Germanic force (сильный) word stress.

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The Causes of the Shift
Another explanation is based on the notion

(понятие, представление) that every subsystem in a language tends to preserve a balanced, symmetrical arrangement : if the balance is broken it will soon be restored by means of new changes. After the replacement of [p,t, k] by [f, þ, h] the positions of the voiceless (глухой) [p,t, k] were left vacant. To fill the vacuums [b, d, g] were devoiced (оглушены) into [p,t, k]. In their turn the vacant positions of [b, d, g] were filled again when [bh, dh, gh] lost their aspirated character.

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Verner’s Law
The correspondences marked by Grimm were regular only if the

non-fixed IE stress fell on the vowel preceding (предшествующий) the consonant or if the consonant stood at the beginning of the word e.g. Gr. deka (десять) – Goth. taihun.
If the preceding vowel was not stressed IE p, t, k in the Germanic languages appeared as voiced (звонкий) plosives (взрывные) rather than voiceless fricatives (глухие щелевые) b, d, g. e.g. Gr. de'kas (десяток) – Goth. tigus
These exceptions to Grimm’s law were explained by the Danish scholar Karl Verner in 1877.

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Verner’s Law
It is read as follows : if any IE consonant

was preceded by an unstressed vowel the voiceless fricative which developed from it in accordance with Grimm’s law became voiced and later it became a voiced plosive.
So the essence of the law is voicing of voiceless plosives.
p>f>v>b e.g. L. septem – OE seofon – NE seven– Germ. Sieben
t> þ> ð>d
k>h>g

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Rhotacism
Similar modifications took place in the fricative s, which was first

voiced into z and then in Western and Northern Germanic languges modified into r: s>z>r.
This change is called rhotacism .
Verner’s law accounts for the consonant change in the modern forms of was and were.
OE wæs – wæson; ME was – weren; NE was – were.

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