История, география и культура стран второго иностранного языка

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NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND 1066

NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND

1066

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1066 /səkˈseʃ(ə)n/ престолонаследие /eə(r)/ In 1066 the Anglo-Saxon kingdom faced the

1066

/səkˈseʃ(ə)n/ престолонаследие
/eə(r)/
In 1066 the Anglo-Saxon kingdom faced the problem of succession.

Neither Saxon nor Danish dynasty produced an obvious, powerful heir to the throne. The Norwegian king Harold Hardrada, the duke of Normandy William, and the earl of Wessex Harold saw themselves as the heirs to the kingdom.
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1066 Harold Hardraga of Norway was the first to move. He

1066

Harold Hardraga of Norway was the first to move. He invaded

Northumbria and on 20 September won the battle against local earls. This would be the last time a Scandinavian army defeated English forces. Harold Hardraga occupied York but was killed in the battle near York on 25 September.
c. 1015 – 25 September 1066
Coordinates: 53°57′30″N 1°4′49″W
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1066 /bə(r)ˈzɜː(r)kə(r)ɡæŋ/ /sɔː(r)d/ Harald was struck in the throat by an

1066

/bə(r)ˈzɜː(r)kə(r)ɡæŋ/ /sɔː(r)d/
Harald was struck in the throat by an arrow and

killed early in the battle in a state of berserkergang, having worn no body armour and fought aggressively with both hands around his sword.
NB: Harold Hardrada was married to Elisabeth (referred to in Scandinavian sources as Ellisif), daughter of Yaroslav the Wise and granddaughter of the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung.
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THE NORMAN CONQUEST /ˈheɪstɪŋz/ Duke William’s fleet landed in Sussex on

THE NORMAN CONQUEST

/ˈheɪstɪŋz/
Duke William’s fleet landed in Sussex on

28 September. On 14 October 1066, the English and Norman armies met near Hastings.
Coordinates: 50.85°N 0.57°E

East Sussex

By 12th century - Lucien Musset's The Bayeux Tapestry ISBN 9781843831631, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19617248 (дата обращения 18.10.2021)

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THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS /ˈɪnfəntri/ /ˈɑː(r)tʃə(r)z//weərˈæz/ /ˈkævəlri/ was a bloody, all-day

THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS

/ˈɪnfəntri/ /ˈɑː(r)tʃə(r)z//weərˈæz/ /ˈkævəlri/
was a bloody, all-day

battle.
The exact numbers present at the battle are unknown; estimates are around 10,000 for William and about 7,000 for Harold. The composition of the forces is clearer; the English army was composed almost entirely of infantry and had few archers, whereas only about half of the invading force was infantry, the rest split equally between cavalry and archers.
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THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS Harold appears to have tried to surprise

THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS

Harold appears to have tried to surprise

William, but scouts found his army and reported its arrival to William, who marched from Hastings to the battlefield to confront Harold. The battle lasted from about 9 am to dusk. Harold fell in the battle killed by a chance arrow. His death led to the retreat and defeat of most of his army.
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THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS After his victory at the Battle of

THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS

After his victory at the Battle of

Hastings, William marched on London and received the city’s submission. On Christmas Day he was crowned the first Norman king of England, in Westminster Abbey, and the Anglo-Saxon phase of English history came to an end.
Which period in the history of the English language came to an end too?
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LOCATION OF MAJOR EVENTS DURING THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND IN

LOCATION OF MAJOR EVENTS DURING THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND IN

1066

By Amitchell125 at English Wikipedia, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34995896

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THE NORMAN ENGLAND There are several sites connected with the epoch.

THE NORMAN ENGLAND

There are several sites connected with the epoch. One

of them is Westminster Abbey, where on Christmas Day 1066 Duke William of Normandy was acclaimed king.
Westminster Abbey was rebuilt in 1517.

By Kjetil Bjørnsrud - Own work, CC BY 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=780325

The Coronation Chair, known historically as St Edward's Chair or King Edward's Chair, was commissioned in 1296 by King Edward I.

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"Westminster Abbey 2015" by Bede735 - Own work. Licensed under CC

"Westminster Abbey 2015" by Bede735 - Own work. Licensed under CC

BY-SA 4.0 via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Westminster_Abbey_2015.jpg#/media/File:Westminster_Abbey_2015.jpg

Western façade

/fəˈsɑːd/

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WESTMINSTER ABBEY By the 16th Century, Westminster Abbey had become the

WESTMINSTER ABBEY

By the 16th Century, Westminster Abbey had become the

setting for coronations, royal marriages and funerals.
The most recent was the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. The wedding of Prince William and Kate Middleton took place there in 2011.
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TOWER OF LONDON /ˌpælɪˈseɪd/ William the Conqueror began the world-famous Tower

TOWER OF LONDON

/ˌpælɪˈseɪd/
William the Conqueror began the world-famous Tower of

London on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It used to be a timber fortification enclosed by a palisade. In the next decade work began on the White Tower, the great stone keep that still dominates the castle today. The precise date of the White Tower's foundation is unknown. It is traditionally held that construction began in 1078.
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"Tower of London White Tower" by Bernard Gagnon - Own work.

"Tower of London White Tower" by Bernard Gagnon - Own work.

Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tower_of_London_White_Tower.jpg#/media/File:Tower_of_London_White_Tower.jpg
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TOWER OF LONDON /ələˈtriːn/ a toilet outside, for example in a

TOWER OF LONDON

/ələˈtriːn/ a toilet outside, for example in a military

camp
The White Tower was multi-purpose. It was the castle's strongest point militarily yet provided accommodation fit for the king and his representatives. In Norman architecture the keep was a symbol of a lord's power. As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold, latrines were built into the walls, and four fireplaces provided warmth.
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"Tower of London (Foto Hilarmont)" by © Hilarmont (Kempten). Licensed under

"Tower of London (Foto Hilarmont)" by © Hilarmont (Kempten). Licensed under

CC BY-SA 3.0 de via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tower_of_London_(Foto_Hilarmont).jpg#/media/File:Tower_of_London_(Foto_Hilarmont).jpg
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THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST /ˈfjuːd(ə)lɪz(ə)m//ˈtenjə(r)/ In political terms

THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST

/ˈfjuːd(ə)lɪz(ə)m//ˈtenjə(r)/
In political terms William's victory

destroyed England's links with Scandinavia, bringing the country instead into close contact with western Europe. Inside England the most radical change was the introduction of military feudalism. While tenure of land in return for services had existed before the Conquest, William's establishment of a system that would provide him with upward of 4,000 knights for his feudal host revolutionised the upper ranks of society.
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THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST /fiːfs//ˈklɜː(r)dʒi/ England was parceled

THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST

/fiːfs//ˈklɜː(r)dʒi/
England was parceled out

among about 180 Norman tenants in chief, all holding their fiefs by knight service. The resultant almost total replacement of an English with a Norman aristocracy was paralleled by a similar change of personnel among the upper clergy and administrative officers. When in 1085-1086 William caused Doomsday Book to be made, there were only 2 surviving lords of any account.
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DOMESDAY BOOK aka DOOMSDAY BOOK /ˈduːmzdeɪ/ or US /ˈdoʊmzdeɪ/ is a

DOMESDAY BOOK aka DOOMSDAY BOOK

/ˈduːmzdeɪ/ or US /ˈdoʊmzdeɪ/
is a manuscript record

of the "Great Survey" of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror.
In 2011, the Open Domesday site made the manuscript available online.
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HTTPS://OPENDOMESDAY.ORG/

HTTPS://OPENDOMESDAY.ORG/

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THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST /ɪˈklɪps/ /və(r)ˈnækjʊlə(r)/ Apart from

THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST

/ɪˈklɪps/ /və(r)ˈnækjʊlə(r)/
Apart from the tragedy

of the dispossessed Old English aristocracy, probably the most regrettable effect of the Conquest was the total eclipse of the English vernacular as the language of literature, law, and administration. The Normans, being Frenchmen, brought with them to England the Norman French language and French culture, written English hardly reappeared until the 13th century.
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THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST /prəˌlɪfəˈreɪʃ(ə)n/ /əˈkɜː(r)d//sɜː(r)fs//rɪˈkwaɪə(r)d/ Nevertheless, tremendous

THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST

/prəˌlɪfəˈreɪʃ(ə)n/ /əˈkɜː(r)d//sɜː(r)fs//rɪˈkwaɪə(r)d/
Nevertheless, tremendous proliferation of

written records occurred during the 12th and 13th centuries. Before the Norman Conquest only the king is known to have possessed a seal, whereas at the end of the 13th century even the serfs were required by statute to have them.
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THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST The proliferation of records

THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE CONQUEST

The proliferation of records involved

a shift from habitually memorizing things to writing them down. It meant that the whole population was now, in a sense, ‘participating in literacy’; even if they could not themselves read they became accustomed to seeing day-to-day business transacted through the medium of writing. It was then that the first universities were established in England: first in Oxford (1249>1096), then in Cambridge (c. 1284 >1209).
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OXBRIDGE: OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITIES

OXBRIDGE: OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITIES

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THE COLONIZATION OF WALES 1070 – 1415

THE COLONIZATION OF WALES

1070 – 1415

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PRINCE OF WALES was a title granted to native Welsh princes

PRINCE OF WALES

was a title granted to native Welsh princes

before the 12th century; the term replaced the use of the word king. One of the last Welsh princes, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, was killed in battle in 1282 by Edward I, King of England, whose son Edward (born in Caernarfon Castle in 1284) was invested as the first English Prince of Wales in 1301.

By Ministry of the Presidency. Government of Spain, Attribution, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14745391

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https://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/

https://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/

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THE LAWS IN WALES ACTS 1535 AND 1542 /ˌdʒʊərɪsˈdɪkʃ(ə)n/ The last

THE LAWS IN WALES ACTS 1535 AND 1542

/ˌdʒʊərɪsˈdɪkʃ(ə)n/
The last remnants of

Celtic-tradition Welsh law were abolished and replaced by English law by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. In the legal jurisdiction of England and Wales, Wales became unified with the kingdom of England, and Wales began electing members of the Westminster parliament.
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CASTLES AND TOWN WALLS OF KING EDWARD IN GWYNEDD /ˈɡwɪnɨð/ UNESCO

CASTLES AND TOWN WALLS OF KING EDWARD IN GWYNEDD

/ˈɡwɪnɨð/
UNESCO World Heritage

Site
extremely well-preserved monuments that are examples of the colonization and defence works carried out throughout the reign of Edward I (1272–1307) and the military architecture of the time.
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"Harlech Castle - Cadw photograph" by Cadw - http://cadw.wales.gov.uk/daysout/harlechcastle/?lang=en. Licensed under

"Harlech Castle - Cadw photograph" by Cadw - http://cadw.wales.gov.uk/daysout/harlechcastle/?lang=en. Licensed under

OGL via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Harlech_Castle_-_Cadw_photograph.jpg#/media/File:Harlech_Castle_-_Cadw_photograph.jpg

CAERNARFON CASTLE AND HARLECH CASTLE

By Herbert Ortner - Own image, scan from slide, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5978372

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ENGLAND’S NORTHERN FRONTIER DURHAM CASTLE

ENGLAND’S NORTHERN FRONTIER

DURHAM CASTLE

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DURHAM CASTLE, SEEN HERE IN FRONT OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL By No

DURHAM CASTLE, SEEN HERE IN FRONT OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL

By No machine-readable

author provided. Jungpionier assumed (based on copyright claims). - No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims)., CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=819937

Coordinates:
54°46′34″N 1°34′24″W

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DURHAM CASTLE AND CATHEDRAL /ˈdʌrəm/ /ˈkɔː(r)tˌjɑː(r)d/ Even today, the Castle still

DURHAM CASTLE AND CATHEDRAL

/ˈdʌrəm/ /ˈkɔː(r)tˌjɑː(r)d/
Even today, the Castle still visually betrays

its origins - a dramatic example of a typical Norman motte-and-baily fortification (The motte is a steep earth mound topped with a fortified building. The bailey is a courtyard around the mound protected by an outer wall.)
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DURHAM CASTLE AND CATHEDRAL /rɪˈsiːdɪd/ As the threat from the Scots

DURHAM CASTLE AND CATHEDRAL

/rɪˈsiːdɪd/
As the threat from the Scots receded, the

Castle evolved into an impressive yet comfortable palace for Durham's all-powerful Prince Bishops. Then in 1837, it was handed over for the use of the newly-founded University of Durham.
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DURHAM CASTLE AND CATHEDRAL At first, the Castle contained the entire

DURHAM CASTLE AND CATHEDRAL

At first, the Castle contained the entire University.

Soon, though, the rapidly-expanding University needed more space. So finally, Durham Castle became Durham University College - a residential community for generations of both dons and students.
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DURHAM CASTLE DOORWAY /ɪˈmækjʊlət/ the great round-headed doorway in near immaculate

DURHAM CASTLE DOORWAY

/ɪˈmækjʊlət/
the great round-headed doorway
in near immaculate condition


one of the finest examples of late Norman stone carving in England
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DURHAM CASTLE AND CATHEDRAL /ˈdʌrəm/ The cathedral was founded in AD

DURHAM CASTLE AND CATHEDRAL

/ˈdʌrəm/
The cathedral was founded in AD 1093.


It is regarded as one of the finest examples of Norman architecture.

"Sfec-durham-cathedral-2007-263" by Steve F-E-Cameron (Merlin-UK) - Own work (Self Photograph). Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sfec-durham-cathedral-2007-263.JPG#/media/File:Sfec-durham-cathedral-2007-263.JPG

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DURHAM CATHEDRAL Now it’s a functional cathedral and about 1400 services

DURHAM CATHEDRAL

Now it’s a functional cathedral and about 1400 services are

held there annually, nevertheless it has been featured in the first two Harry Potter films for both interior and exterior views of Hogwarts.
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THE LATER MIDDLE AGES /ɪɡˈzɔːstɪd/ /ˈsɪəriəs/ By about 1300 England choked

THE LATER MIDDLE AGES

/ɪɡˈzɔːstɪd/ /ˈsɪəriəs/
By about 1300 England choked with people.

Until that time, the clearing of forests and marshland for cultivation and new methods of agriculture had kept most people well fed. By about 1300, however, there was no more land to clear, and the existing land, no matter how well it was cultivated, could not support the growing number of people who lived on it. The soil itself had become exhausted after years of continuous cultivation. Starvation became a serious problem in the 14th century.
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THE BLACK DEATH /bjuːˌbɒnɪk ˈpleɪɡ/ /ˈrəʊd(ə)nts/ Already weakened by continued food

THE BLACK DEATH

/bjuːˌbɒnɪk ˈpleɪɡ/ /ˈrəʊd(ə)nts/
Already weakened by continued food shortages,

the people were hit especially hard by the first known arrival of the Black Death in 1348. The Black Death was an epidemic of bubonic plague known to the contemporaries as ‘the great mortality’. As the plague was transmitted by fleas carried by rodents, it was worst in the cities, where many people lived close together and sanitation was poor.

Textbook of Military Medicine. Washington, DC, US Department of the Army, Office of the Surgeon General, and Borden Institute. 1997:493. Government publication, no copyright on photos. - http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/967495-overview

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague#/media/File:Acral_necrosis_due_to_bubonic_plague.jpg

necrosis
/neˈkrəʊsɪs/

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THE BLACK DEATH /ˌɪŋkjʊˈbeɪʃ(ə)n/ /ˈpɪəriəd/ /məˈleɪz/ /ˈhedeɪk/ In some cities, the

THE BLACK DEATH

/ˌɪŋkjʊˈbeɪʃ(ə)n/ /ˈpɪəriəd/ /məˈleɪz/ /ˈhedeɪk/
In some cities, the plague killed

as many as two-thirds of the population. Outbreaks of plague continued throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th century.
After the incubation period of 2-6 days, symptoms of the plague appear including severe malaise, headache, shaking chills, fever, and pain and swelling in the affected regional lymph nodes, also known as buboes.

By Photo Credit:Content Providers(s): CDC - This media comes from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Public Health Image Library (PHIL), with identification number #2047.Note: Not all PHIL images are public domain; be sure to check copyright status and credit authors and content providers.English | Slovenščina | +/−Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6286382

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THE 1381 POLL TAX /ˈpez(ə)nts/ So many people died that a

THE 1381 POLL TAX

/ˈpez(ə)nts/
So many people died that a labour

shortage developed. Those who remained tried to bargain for more land and better conditions. In England peasants tried to take advantage of the favourable new conditions for workers after the plague, but landlords refused to lower rents or raise wages. In fact the poll tax introduced in 1381 was three times the rate of 1379.
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TYLER’S REBELLION /ɪnˈsɜː(r)dʒ(ə)nts/ /ˈkaʊntiz/ Various groups of peasants led by an

TYLER’S REBELLION

/ɪnˈsɜː(r)dʒ(ə)nts/ /ˈkaʊntiz/
Various groups of peasants led by an ex-soldier named

Wat Tyler joined together to protest taxes raised. The insurgents, mostly labourers from the counties of Essex, Middlesex, Sussex, and Kent, stormed London on June 13. After much looting and killing, king Richard II, then aged 14, met with the rebels and agreed to their demands. As soon as they dispersed, however, he went back on his promise, and many of the peasants were executed.
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RICHARD II MEETING WITH THE REBELS OF THE PEASANTS' REVOLT OF

RICHARD II MEETING WITH THE REBELS OF THE PEASANTS' REVOLT OF

1381.

By Jean Froissart - Bibliothèque nationale de Francehttp://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8438605h/f336.item, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=38053761

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END OF SERFDOM IN ENGLAND /ˈsɜː(r)fdəm/ /ɪˈmænsɪˌpeɪtɪd/ Nevertheless, the king was

END OF SERFDOM IN ENGLAND

/ˈsɜː(r)fdəm/ /ɪˈmænsɪˌpeɪtɪd/
Nevertheless, the king was unable to

prevent the changes started by the plague from continuing, and serfdom ended in England in the 15th century. [Encarta]
1574 Last remaining serfs were emancipated by Elizabeth I. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom]
When did serfdom end in Russia?
1861
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LITERATURE /ˈprəʊlɒɡ/ /ˈplaʊ.mən/ /ˈmaɪkrəʊˌkɒz(ə)m/ Tyler became a figure of legend and

LITERATURE

/ˈprəʊlɒɡ/ /ˈplaʊ.mən/ /ˈmaɪkrəʊˌkɒz(ə)m/
Tyler became a figure of legend and is the

hero of the poem “Wat Tyler” (1794), by the British poet Robert Southey.
“The Canterbury Tales” by Geoffrey Chaucer written in 1387-1400 is a collection of stories set within a framing story of a pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral, the shrine of Saint Thomas а Becket. The poet joins a band of pilgrims, vividly described in the General Prologue, who assemble at the Tabard Inn outside London for the journey to Canterbury. Ranging in status from a Knight to a humble Plowman, they are a microcosm of 14th-century English society.
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THE CANTERBURY TALES /həʊst/ /ˈkɒntest/ /ˈkwɔː(r)tə(r)/ The Host proposes a storytelling

THE CANTERBURY TALES

/həʊst/ /ˈkɒntest/ /ˈkwɔː(r)tə(r)/
The Host proposes a storytelling contest to

pass the time; each of the 30 or so pilgrims (the exact number is unclear) is to tell four tales on the round trip. Chaucer completed less than a quarter of this plan. The work contains 22 verse tales (two unfinished) and two long prose tales; a few are thought to be pieces written earlier by Chaucer.
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THE CANTERBURY TALES /vəˈraɪəti/ /ˌmediˈiːv(ə)l/ /sɪˈdʌkʃ(ə)n/ The tales represent nearly every

THE CANTERBURY TALES

/vəˈraɪəti/ /ˌmediˈiːv(ə)l/ /sɪˈdʌkʃ(ə)n/
The tales represent nearly every variety of

medieval story at its best. The special genius of Chaucer's work, however, lies in the dramatic interaction between the tales and the framing story. After the Knight's courtly and philosophical romance about noble love, the Miller interrupts with a deliciously bawdy story of seduction.
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GEOFFREY CHAUCER /ɪnˈkriːst/ /ˈθʌrə/ Chaucer greatly increased the prestige of English

GEOFFREY CHAUCER

/ɪnˈkriːst/  /ˈθʌrə/
Chaucer greatly increased the prestige of English as

a literary language and extended the range of its poetic vocabulary and meters. Chaucer dominated the works of his 15th-century English followers and the so-called Scottish Chaucerians.
Many of the plays of William Shakespeare show thorough assimilation of Chaucer's comic spirit.

By Unknown - New Catholic Encyclopedia (has no copyright notification in contrast to the other images), Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3996640

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THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR /wɜː(r)s/ /ˈskɜː(r)mɪʃɪz/ /ˈɪʃuː/ or /ˈɪsjuː/ Times that

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

/wɜː(r)s/ /ˈskɜː(r)mɪʃɪz/ /ˈɪʃuː/ or /ˈɪsjuː/
Times that were

already bad in France and England were made worse by the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). England had held territory for a long time in what is now France. However, the French kings had been constantly trying to extend their influence in the English territories, and the two sides had fought several small skirmishes over the issue.
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THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR /əkˈseʃ(ə)n/ /θrəʊn/ /θruː/ The situation became more

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

/əkˈseʃ(ə)n/ /θrəʊn/ /θruː/
The situation became more complicated

in 1327 with the accession of English king Edward III. Edward had a claim to the French throne through his mother’s side of the family. When Philip VI of France confiscated the last bit of territory that Edward held on the continent, Edward declared himself the true French king and invaded France.
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THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR /fɔːt/ /ˈʃɪvəlri/ /ˈɑː(r)mə(r)d/ The Hundred Years' War

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

/fɔːt/ /ˈʃɪvəlri/ /ˈɑː(r)mə(r)d/
The Hundred Years' War was fought

on French soil and marked the end of chivalry and knightly warfare. Many of the troops involved were mercenaries. When there was a lull in the fighting, they simply hired themselves out to nobles or looted the countryside on their own. Instead of armoured knights, the most important troops were the English archers, whose arrows penetrated armour and reduced the effectiveness of knightly cavalry.
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KING EDWARD III CROSSING THE SOMME BY BENJAMIN WEST (1728-1820) © Royal Collection

KING EDWARD III CROSSING THE SOMME BY BENJAMIN WEST (1728-1820)
© Royal

Collection
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THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR /ˈɒn(ə)rəb(ə)l/ /eə(r)/ By the end of the

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

/ˈɒn(ə)rəb(ə)l/ /eə(r)/
By the end of the Hundred Years’

War, both armies were using guns and cannons. Honourable knightly combat and chivalry were of little importance to the outcome of this war.
For a long time it looked as though the English would win, but in the 1420s the tide began to turn. Here and there French peasants banded together to fight the English. In 1429 a peasant girl named Joan of Arc convinced Charles, the heir to the French throne, that she had been sent by God to save France.
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THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR /riːmz/ /ɔːlˈðəʊ/ /ˈkæptʃə(r)d/ /ˈbeɪ.li.wɪk/ /ˈdʌtʃi/ Joan led

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

/riːmz/ /ɔːlˈðəʊ/ /ˈkæptʃə(r)d/ /ˈbeɪ.li.wɪk/ /ˈdʌtʃi/
Joan led the French

troops against the English and then escorted Charles to the city of Reims, where he was crowned king as Charles VII. Although Joan was captured and put to death by the English in 1431, her actions marked the turning point of the war. It ended with England's defeat.
The Channel Islands! Two Crown dependencies: the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey are the remnants of the Duchy of Normandy.
Слайд 59

THE CHANNEL ISLANDS By Hannes2 (me),using PD Maps (see this and

THE CHANNEL ISLANDS

By Hannes2 (me),using PD Maps (see this and that)

from the CIA World Fact Book for the shapes of the Islands and a PD NASA satellite image (see this) for their position and the shape of the French Coast. - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1506987

Although they are not part of the United Kingdom, the UK is responsible for the defence and international relations of the islands. The Crown dependencies are not members of the Commonwealth of Nations nor of the European Union.
"Channel Islands" is a geographical term, not a political unit. Nevertheless, the Isle of Wight is not a "Channel Island", despite being located in the Channel.

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