Introduction to the Endocrine System

Содержание

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17.1 Introduction to the Endocrine System Compare and contrast the actions

17.1 Introduction to the Endocrine System
Compare and contrast the actions of

the endocrine system and the nervous system to control body function.
Describe the general functions controlled by the endocrine system.

Learning Objectives:

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17.1 Introduction to the Endocrine System Endocrine system Composed of ductless

17.1 Introduction to the Endocrine System

Endocrine system
Composed of ductless glands that

synthesize and secrete hormones
Hormones are released into the blood and transported throughout the body
Target cells have the specific receptors for a hormone
They bind hormone and respond
Endocrine and nervous systems are the two control systems of the body
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17.1a Comparison of the Two Control Systems Both the endocrine and

17.1a Comparison of the Two Control Systems

Both the endocrine and nervous

system
Release ligands—chemical messengers
Ligands bind to cellular receptor on particular target cells
Unlike the nervous system, the endocrine system
Transmits hormones through the blood
Targets any cells in the body with correct receptors
Can be very widespread
Exhibits longer reaction times
Has longer-lasting effects (minutes to days and weeks)
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Nervous and Endocrine System Communication Methods Figure 17.1

Nervous and Endocrine System Communication Methods

Figure 17.1

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17.1b General Functions of the Endocrine System Regulating development, growth, and

17.1b General Functions of the Endocrine System

Regulating development, growth, and metabolism
Hormones

help regulate embryonic cell division and differentiation
Hormones regulate metabolism (both anabolism and catabolism)
Maintaining homeostasis of blood composition and volume
Hormones regulate blood solute concentrations (e.g., glucose, ions)
Hormones regulate blood volume, cellular concentration, and platelet number
Controlling digestive processes
Hormones influence secretory processes and movement of materials in digestive tract
Controlling reproductive activities
Hormones affect development and function of reproductive systems and the expression of sexual behaviors
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What did you learn? Which control system typically has slower, longer-lasting

What did you learn?

Which control system typically has slower, longer-lasting effects?
What

general effects can hormones have on the characteristics of blood?
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17.2 Endocrine Glands Distinguish between the two types of organization of

17.2 Endocrine Glands
Distinguish between the two types of organization of endocrine

cells.
Identify the major endocrine glands and their location within the body.
Explain the three reflex mechanisms for regulating secretion of hormones.

Learning Objectives:

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17.2a Location of the Major Endocrine Glands Glands contain epithelial tissue

17.2a Location of the Major Endocrine Glands

Glands contain epithelial tissue that

makes and releases hormones
Some glands are endocrine organs with solely endocrine function
Include: pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands
Some “glands” are clusters of cells in organs with another function
Examples in: hypothalamus, skin, thymus, heart, liver, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, adipose connective tissue, kidneys, and gonads
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Location of the Major Endocrine Glands and Organs Containing Endocrine Cells Figure 17.2

Location of the Major Endocrine Glands and Organs Containing Endocrine Cells

Figure

17.2
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Pineal Gland Pituitary Gland Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Glands Adrenal Glands Endocrine Glands

Pineal Gland

Pituitary Gland

Thyroid Gland

Parathyroid Glands

Adrenal Glands

Endocrine Glands

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Organs Containing Endocrine Cells Hypothalamus Skin Thymus Heart Kidneys Liver Stomach Small Intestines Pancreas Testis Ovaries

Organs Containing Endocrine Cells

Hypothalamus

Skin

Thymus

Heart

Kidneys

Liver

Stomach

Small Intestines

Pancreas

Testis

Ovaries

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17.2b Stimulation of Hormone Synthesis and Release Hormone release is regulated

17.2b Stimulation of Hormone Synthesis and Release

Hormone release is regulated by

reflexes to stimuli
Hormonal, humoral, or nervous stimuli can initiate hormone release
Hormonal stimulation
A gland cell releases its hormone when some other hormone binds to it
Humoral stimulation
A gland cell releases its hormone when there is a certain change in levels of a nutrient or ion in the blood
Nervous stimulation
A gland cell releases its hormone when a neuron stimulates it
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Types of Endocrine Stimulation Figure 17.3

Types of Endocrine Stimulation

Figure 17.3

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What did you learn? Is the entire pancreas an endocrine organ?

What did you learn?

Is the entire pancreas an endocrine organ?
Parathyroid hormone

is secreted when blood calcium levels drop too low. What sort of stimulation is this?
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17.3 Hormones Name the three structural categories of circulating hormones, and

17.3 Hormones
Name the three structural categories of circulating hormones, and give examples

within each category.
Distinguish the hormones that are lipid-soluble from those that are water-soluble.
Describe the general structure, formation, and function of local hormones.
Compare autocrine and paracrine signaling that occurs through local hormones.

Learning Objectives:

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17.3a Categories of Circulating Hormones Figure 17.4a Steroids Lipid-soluble molecules synthesized

17.3a Categories of Circulating Hormones

Figure 17.4a

Steroids
Lipid-soluble molecules synthesized from cholesterol
Includes

gonadal steroids (e.g., estrogen)
Includes steroid synthesized by adrenal cortex (e.g., cortisol)
Calcitriol sometimes classified in this group, but more accurately called a sterol
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17.3a Categories of Circulating Hormones Figure 17.4b Biogenic amines (monoamines) Modified

17.3a Categories of Circulating Hormones

Figure 17.4b

Biogenic amines (monoamines)
Modified amino acids
Includes:

catecholamines, thyroid hormone, melatonin
Water-soluble except for thyroid hormone (TH)
TH is nonpolar (made from a pair of tyrosines) and lipid soluble
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17.3a Categories of Circulating Hormones Figure 17.4c Proteins Most hormones are

17.3a Categories of Circulating Hormones

Figure 17.4c

Proteins
Most hormones are in this

category
Water-soluble chains of amino acids
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17.3b Local Hormones Local hormones Signaling molecules that don’t circulate in

17.3b Local Hormones

Local hormones
Signaling molecules that don’t circulate in blood
Some biologists

don’t consider them “hormones”
They bind to neighboring cells or the cells that release them
Eicosanoids: a type of local hormone formed from fatty acids within phospholipid bilayer of membrane
Synthesized through an enzymatic cascade
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17.3b Local Hormones Eicosanoid production Phospholipase A2 removes arachidonic acid from

17.3b Local Hormones

Eicosanoid production
Phospholipase A2 removes arachidonic acid from phospholipid
Other enzymes

convert arachidonic acid to a subtype of eicosanoid
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17.3b Local Hormones Eicosanoid effects Autocrine stimulation Effects on the same

17.3b Local Hormones

Eicosanoid effects
Autocrine stimulation
Effects on the same cell where messenger

was formed
Paracrine stimulation
Effects on neighboring cells
Prostaglandins are eicosanoids
Stimulate pain and inflammatory responses
Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs block prostaglandin formation
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What did you learn? Insulin is made up of a chain

What did you learn?

Insulin is made up of a chain of

amino acids. What class of hormone is it? Is it water soluble or lipid soluble?
How are prostaglandins synthesized?
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17.4 Hormone Transport Compare the transport of lipid-soluble hormones with that

17.4 Hormone Transport
Compare the transport of lipid-soluble hormones with that of water-soluble

hormones.
Describe the two primary factors that affect the concentration level of a circulating hormone.
Explain what is meant by the half-life of a hormone.

Learning Objectives:

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17.4a Transport in the Blood Lipid-soluble hormones use carrier molecules Do

17.4a Transport in the Blood

Lipid-soluble hormones use carrier molecules
Do not dissolve

readily in blood
Carriers are water-soluble proteins made by the liver
Carriers protect hormones from early destruction
Binding between hormone and carrier is temporary
Attachment, detachment, reattachment are common
Most of the hormone (90% or more) is bound hormone
Only unbound (free) hormone is able to exit blood and bind to target cell receptors
Most water-soluble hormones travel freely through blood
A few use carrier proteins to prolong their life
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17.4b Levels of Circulating Hormone A hormone’s blood concentration depends on

17.4b Levels of Circulating Hormone

A hormone’s blood concentration depends on how

fast it is synthesized and eliminated
Hormone synthesis is done by the gland
The faster the synthesis rate, the higher the blood concentration
Hormone elimination occurs in multiple ways
Enzymatic degradation in liver cells
Removal from blood via kidney excretion or target cell uptake
The faster the elimination rate, the lower the blood concentration
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17.4b Levels of Circulating Hormone Half-Life—time necessary to reduce a hormone’s

17.4b Levels of Circulating Hormone

Half-Life—time necessary to reduce a hormone’s concentration

to half of its original level
Depends on how efficiently it is eliminated
Hormones with short half-life must be secreted frequently to maintain normal concentration
Water-soluble hormones generally have short half-life
E.g., half-life of a few minutes for small peptide hormones
Steroid hormones generally have a long half-life
Carrier proteins protect them
E.g., testosterone half-life is 12 days
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What did you learn? If hormone X and hormone Y had

What did you learn?

If hormone X and hormone Y had the

same rate of synthesis, but X’s elimination rate was faster, which would be at a higher level in the blood?
Which type of hormone generally has a protein carrier in the blood?
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17.5 Target Cells: Interactions with Hormones Describe how lipid-soluble hormones reach

17.5 Target Cells: Interactions with Hormones
Describe how lipid-soluble hormones reach their target

cell receptors and the type of cellular change they initiate.
Describe how water-soluble hormones induce cellular change in their target cells.

Learning Objectives:

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17.5a Lipid-Soluble Hormones Lipid-soluble hormones can diffuse across target cell membrane

17.5a Lipid-Soluble Hormones

Lipid-soluble hormones can diffuse across target cell membrane
Such hormones

are small, nonpolar, and lipophilic
Their receptors are in the cytosol or nucleus
Once hormone enters cell it binds to receptor and forms hormone-receptor complex
The complex binds to a hormone-response element of DNA
Results in transcription of an mRNA, which is translated to a protein
The protein may have structural or metabolic effects
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Lipid-Soluble Hormones and Intracellular Receptors Figure 17.6

Lipid-Soluble Hormones
and Intracellular Receptors

Figure 17.6

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17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones Water-soluble hormones use membrane receptors Such hormones are

17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones

Water-soluble hormones use membrane receptors
Such hormones are polar and

can’t diffuse through membrane
Signal transduction pathway
Hormone is first messenger—it initiates events by binding to receptor
Binding activates a G-protein (an internal membrane protein that binds a guanine nucleotide)
Activation results in binding of GTP instead of GDP
G-protein activation causes activation of a membrane enzyme such as adenylate cyclase or phospholipase C
Activated enzyme catalyzes the formation of a second messenger—a chemical that modifies cellular activity
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Activation of G Proteins Figure 17.7

Activation of G Proteins

Figure 17.7

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Action of G Proteins Figure 17.8a Adenylate cyclase pathway After hormone

Action of G Proteins

Figure 17.8a

Adenylate cyclase pathway
After hormone (e.g., glucagon) binds

to its receptor, G protein is activated
Activated G protein activates adenylate cyclase
Adenylate cyclase generates cAMP
cAMP activates protein kinase A
Protein kinase A phosphorylates other molecules (activating or inhibiting them)
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17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones Phospholipase C pathway After hormone (e.g., epinephrine) binds

17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones

Phospholipase C pathway
After hormone (e.g., epinephrine) binds to its

receptor, G protein is activated
Activated G protein activates phospholipase C
Phospholipase C splits PIP2 into diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3)
DAG is a second messenger of the membrane that activates protein kinase C
- Protein kinase C phosphorylates other molecules
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17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones Phospholipase C pathway (continued) IP3 is a second

17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones

Phospholipase C pathway (continued)
IP3 is a second messenger that

leaves the membrane and causes an increase in the levels of Ca2+ in the cytosol
Increase caused by effects on endoplasmic reticulum and cell membrane Ca2+ channels
Ca2+ acts as a third messenger, activating kinases (sometimes by binding to calmodulin) and interacting with ion channels
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Action of G Proteins Figure 17.8b Phospholipase C Pathway

Action of G Proteins

Figure 17.8b

Phospholipase C Pathway

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17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones Action of water-soluble hormones Multiple results possible with

17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones

Action of water-soluble hormones
Multiple results possible with different signal

transduction pathways
Enzymes can be activated or inhibited
Growth can be stimulated (cell division)
Cellular secretions can be released
Membrane permeability can be changed
Muscles can be contracted or relaxed
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17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones Action of water-soluble hormones (continued) E.g., glucagon released

17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones

Action of water-soluble hormones (continued)
E.g., glucagon released from pancreas

when blood sugar is low
Binds to receptors in membranes of liver cells
Liver cell increases cAMP synthesis, activating kinase A
Kinase A phosphorylates other enzymes leading to release of glucose from cell
E.g., oxytocin released from posterior pituitary during labor and delivery
Binds to receptors of smooth muscle cells in uterus
Muscle cell increases production of IP3 increasing intracellular Ca2+
Uterine muscle contractions strengthen to expel baby
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17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones Intracellular enzyme cascade and response amplification Signaling pathway

17.5b Water-Soluble Hormones

Intracellular enzyme cascade and response amplification
Signaling pathway advantages
Signal is

amplified at each enzymatic step
Just a few hormone molecules can change many molecules within cell
There are many places to regulate pathway activities
Signaling pathway controls
Cells possess mechanisms to quickly inactivate intermediate
E.g., to break down second messengers
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What did you learn? Where are target cell receptors for lipophilic

What did you learn?

Where are target cell receptors for lipophilic hormones

located?
What is protein kinase A, and what role does it have in a signal pathway?
Where does DAG come from, and what function does it serve?
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17.6 Target Cells: Degree of Cellular Response Describe the conditions that

17.6 Target Cells: Degree of Cellular Response
Describe the conditions that influence

the number of receptors available for a specific hormone.
Define up-regulation and down-regulation.
Compare and contrast the three types of hormone interactions.

Learning Objectives:

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17.6 Target Cells: Degree of Cellular Response A cell’s response to

17.6 Target Cells: Degree of Cellular Response

A cell’s response to a

hormone varies with
Its number of receptors for the hormone
Its simultaneous response to other hormones
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17.6a Number of Receptors Receptor number fluctuates Up-regulation: increases number of

17.6a Number of Receptors

Receptor number fluctuates
Up-regulation: increases number of receptors
Increases sensitivity

to hormone
Sometimes occurs when blood levels of hormone are low
Sometimes occurs with changes in development, cell cycle, cell activity
Down-regulation: decreases number of receptors
Decreases sensitivity to hormone
Sometimes occurs when blood levels of hormone are high
Sometimes occurs with changes in development, cell cycle, cell activity
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Receptor Number Figure 17.9a

Receptor Number

Figure 17.9a

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17.6b Receptor Interactions Different hormones can simultaneously bind to a cell

17.6b Receptor Interactions

Different hormones can simultaneously bind to a cell
Synergistic interactions
One

hormone reinforces activity of another hormone
E.g., estrogen and progesterone effects on a target cell
Permissive interactions
One hormone requires activity of another hormone
E.g., oxytocin’s milk ejection effect requires prolactin’s milk generating effect
Antagonistic interactions
One hormone opposes activity of another hormone
E.g., glucagon increases blood glucose while insulin lowers it
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Receptor Interactions Figure 17.9b

Receptor Interactions

Figure 17.9b

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What did you learn? If someone were to take a large

What did you learn?

If someone were to take a large dose

of artificial hormone, how might target cells respond to maintain a normal level of response?
What type of interaction occurs when a target cell has receptors for two hormones causing opposing effects?
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17.7 The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland Describe the anatomic relationship

17.7 The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland
Describe the anatomic relationship of the

hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
Identify the specific structures associated with the posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary.
Identify the two hormones released from the posterior pituitary, and describe how the hypothalamus controls their release.
List the hormones released from the hypothalamus that control the anterior pituitary.
Explain how the hypothalamus controls the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary and the general function of each.

Learning Objectives:

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17.7a Anatomic Relationship of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland Hypothalamus

17.7a Anatomic Relationship of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland

Hypothalamus controls

pituitary, which controls thyroid, adrenal, liver, testes, ovaries
Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
Lies inferior to hypothalamus in sella turcica of sphenoid bone
Pea sized
Connected to hypothalamus by infundibulum (stalk)
Partitioned into anterior and posterior pituitary (lobes)
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Hypothalamus and Pituitary Figure 17.11a

Hypothalamus and Pituitary

Figure 17.11a

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17.7a Anatomic Relationship of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland Posterior

17.7a Anatomic Relationship of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland

Posterior pituitary

(neurohypophysis)
Smaller, neural part of pituitary gland
Develops as a bud from the developing hypothalamus
Composed of pars nervosa (lobe) and infundibulum
Hypothalamic neurons project through infundibulum and release hormones in pars nervosa
Somas in paraventricular nucleus and suprapotic nucleus
Axons in hypothalmo-hypophyseal tract of infundibulum
Synaptic knobs in pars nervosa
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17.7a Anatomic Relationship of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland Anterior

17.7a Anatomic Relationship of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland

Anterior pituitary

(adenohypophysis)
Larger, glandular part of pituitary
Develops from ectoderm of oral cavity
Partitioned into three areas:
Pars distalis, large anterior rounded portion
Pars tuberalis, thin wrapping around infundibulum
Pars intermedia, scant region between the other two areas
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Figure 17.11b–e Hypothalamus and Pituitary

Figure 17.11b–e

Hypothalamus and Pituitary

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17.7a Anatomic Relationship of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland Anterior

17.7a Anatomic Relationship of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland

Anterior pituitary

(continued)
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system of blood vessels
Primary plexus
Porous capillary network associated with hypothalamus
Secondary plexus
Capillary network associated with anterior pituitary
Hypophyseal portal veins
Drain primary plexus and transport to secondary plexus
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Hypothalamus—Pituitary Hypothalamus Infundibulum Pituitary gland Sella turcica

Hypothalamus—Pituitary

Hypothalamus

Infundibulum

Pituitary gland

Sella turcica

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Pituitary Gland

Pituitary Gland

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Pituitary Gland Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary Infundibulum

Pituitary Gland

Anterior pituitary

Posterior pituitary

Infundibulum

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Posterior Pituitary Medium Magnification Blood vessel Herring bodies Nuclei of pituicytes

Posterior Pituitary Medium Magnification

Blood vessel

Herring bodies

Nuclei of pituicytes

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Pituitary Gland Pars distalis Pars intermedia Pars nervosa Pars tuberalis Pars

Pituitary Gland

Pars distalis

Pars intermedia

Pars nervosa

Pars tuberalis

Pars tuberalis
(aberrant part)

Vestige of Rathke’s pouch

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Anterior Pituitary Acidophils Basophils Blood vessel Chromophils Chromophobes

Anterior Pituitary

Acidophils

Basophils

Blood vessel

Chromophils

Chromophobes

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17.7b Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Posterior Pituitary Gland Posterior

17.7b Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Posterior Pituitary Gland

Posterior pituitary is

storage and release site for oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Hormones made in hypothalamus by neurosecretory cells
Packed in secretory vesicles, transported by fast axonal transport
Released from synaptic knobs into blood when neurons fire impulses
Oxytocin
Made in paraventricular nucleus
Functions: uterine contraction, milk ejection , emotional bonding
Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
Made in supraoptic nucleus
Functions: decrease urine production, stimulate thirst, constrict blood vessels
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17.7c Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland Hypothalamus

17.7c Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland

Hypothalamus hormonally stimulates

anterior pituitary to release its hormones
Hypothalamus secretes regulatory hormones
Travel via portal blood vessels to pituitary
Anterior pituitary secretes hormones into general circulation
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17.7c Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland Regulatory

17.7c Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland

Regulatory hormones of

the hypothalamus
Releasing hormones
Increase secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
Include: thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), and growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH).
Inhibiting hormones
Decrease secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
Include: prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) and growth-inhibiting hormone (GIH)
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17.7c Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland Anterior

17.7c Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland

Anterior pituitary—tropic hormones

and prolactin
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Release triggered by TRH from hypothalamus
Causes release of thyroid hormone (TH) from thyroid gland
Prolactin (PRL)
Release triggered by PRH, inhibited by PIH from hypothalamus
Causes milk production, mammary gland growth in females
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; corticotropin)
Release triggered by CRH from hypothalamus
Causes release of corticosteroids by adrenal cortex
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17.7c Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland Anterior

17.7c Interactions Between the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland

Anterior pituitary—tropic hormones

and prolactin (continued)
Gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and leutenizing hormone (LH)
Release triggered by GnRH from hypothalamus
In female: regulate ovarian development and secretion of estrogen and progesterone
In male: regulate sperm development and secretion of testosterone
Growth hormone (GH; somatotropin)
Release triggered by GHRH, inhibited by GHIH from hypothalamus
Causes liver to secrete insulin-like growth factors
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones Figure 17.12

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Figure 17.12

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Clinical View: Hypophysectomy Surgical removal of the pituitary gland because of

Clinical View: Hypophysectomy

Surgical removal of the pituitary gland because of tumors
Preferred

surgical approach through nasal cavity
Various hormones need to be replaced and their levels need to be monitored
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What did you learn? Where are secondary plexus blood vessels located?

What did you learn?

Where are secondary plexus blood vessels located?
Where are

tropic hormones synthesized and what is their general function?
Where is oxytocin synthesized and where is it released?
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17.8 Representative Hormones Regulated by the Hypothalamus Describe the homeostatic system

17.8 Representative Hormones Regulated by the Hypothalamus
Describe the homeostatic system involving growth

hormone.
Describe thyroid gland location and anatomy.
Discuss how thyroid hormones are produced, stored, and secreted.
Explain the control of thyroid hormone by the hypothalamus and pituitary.
Describe the structure and location of the adrenal glands.

Learning Objectives:

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17.8 Representative Hormones Regulated by the Hypothalamus (continued) Name the three

17.8 Representative Hormones Regulated by the Hypothalamus (continued)

Name the three zones of

the adrenal cortex and the hormones produced in each zone.
Describe how the hypothalamus controls the release of glucocorticoid (cortisol) and the effects of cortisol.

Learning Objectives:

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17.8a Growth Hormone Growth hormone (GH) functions include Stimulation of linear

17.8a Growth Hormone

Growth hormone (GH) functions include
Stimulation of linear growth at

epiphyseal plate
Hypertrophy of muscle
Release of nutrients from storage into blood
GHRH stimulates GH release
Release influenced by: age, time of day, and nutrient levels, stress and exercise
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Growth Hormone Release Figure 17.14a,b

Growth Hormone Release

Figure 17.14a,b

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Growth Hormone Release (continued) Figure 17.14c,d

Growth Hormone Release (continued)

Figure 17.14c,d

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17.8a Growth Hormone GH targets hepatocytes Hepatocytes release insulin-like growth factors

17.8a Growth Hormone

GH targets hepatocytes
Hepatocytes release insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
IGFs work

synergistically with GH, enhancing response
IGFs have a longer half life than GH
Hepatocytes also increase glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
Results in diabetogenic increase in blood glucose levels
All body cells have receptors for GH, IGF or both
Cause increases in cell division, protein synthesis, cell differentiation
Bone and muscle are particularly responsive
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17.8a Growth Hormone GH and IGFs cause adipose cells to release

17.8a Growth Hormone

GH and IGFs cause adipose cells to release nutrients
Cells

increase lipolysis and decrease lipogenesis
Increases levels of glycerol and fatty acids in blood
Helps provide molecules necessary for generating ATP for growth
Negative feedback regulation of GHRH, GH release
Increased levels of GH or IGF stimulate hypothalamus to release GHIH
GH release also inhibits its own release from pituitary
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Regulation and Action of GH Figure 17.13

Regulation and Action of GH

Figure 17.13

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Clinical View: Disorders of Growth Hormone Secretion Growth hormone deficiency (pituitary

Clinical View: Disorders of Growth Hormone Secretion

Growth hormone deficiency (pituitary dwarfism)
Inadequate

growth hormone production
Due to hypothalamic or pituitary problem
Short stature and low blood sugar
Pituitary gigantism
Too much growth hormone
Excessive growth and increased blood sugar
Enormous internal organs
Death at early age if untreated
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Clinical View: Disorders of Growth Hormone Secretion (continued) Acromegaly Excessive growth

Clinical View: Disorders of Growth Hormone Secretion (continued)

Acromegaly
Excessive growth hormone production

in adult
Enlargement of bones of face, hands, and feet
Increased release of glucose
Internal organs increased in size
Results from loss of feedback control of growth hormone
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17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone Anatomy of the thyroid gland

17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone

Anatomy of the thyroid gland
Sits inferior

to thyroid cartilage of larynx, anterior to trachea
Left and right lobes
Connected at midline by narrow isthmus
Rich vascularization gives it reddish color
Composed of microscopic follicles
Follicular cells—cuboidal epithelial cells that surround a central lumen
Produce and release thyroid hormone (TH)
Follicle lumen houses colloid—a viscous, protein-rich fluid
Parafollicular cells—cells around follicular cells that make calcitonin
Hormone that decreases blood calcium levels
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The Thyroid Gland Figure 17.15a

The Thyroid Gland

Figure 17.15a

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The Thyroid Gland Figure 17.15b

The Thyroid Gland

Figure 17.15b

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Thyroid Hormone Synthesis, Storage, and Release Figure 17.16

Thyroid Hormone Synthesis, Storage, and Release

Figure 17.16

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Thyroid Gland

Thyroid Gland

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Thyroid Gland Medium Magnification Thyroid follicle Follicular cells Follicular colloid Extrafollicular cells (C cells)

Thyroid Gland Medium Magnification

Thyroid follicle

Follicular cells

Follicular colloid

Extrafollicular cells
(C cells)

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Thyroid Gland High Magnification Thyroid follicle Nuclei of follicular cells Follicular colloid Extrafollicular cells (C cells)

Thyroid Gland High Magnification

Thyroid follicle

Nuclei of follicular
cells

Follicular colloid

Extrafollicular cells
(C cells)

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17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone Action of thyroid hormone (TH)

17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone

Action of thyroid hormone (TH)
Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis
Cold

temperature, pregnancy, high altitude, hypoglycemia, or low TH cause hypothalamus to release TRH
TRH causes anterior pituitary to release TSH
TSH binds to receptors of follicular cells and triggers release of TH
Follicular cells release two forms of TH to blood: T3 and T4
T3 = triiodothyronine; T4 = tetraiodothyronine
T3 and T4 are transported within blood by carrier molecules
Слайд 88

17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone Action of thyroid hormone (TH)

17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone

Action of thyroid hormone (TH) (continued)
Some

TH dissociates from carrier proteins and exits blood
Cellular transport brings TH into target cells where it binds to receptor
T3 versus T4
Thyroid gland produces more T4 but T3 is more active form
Most target cells convert T4 to T3
TH increases metabolic rate and protein synthesis in targets
Stimulates synthesis of sodium-potassium pumps in neurons
Calorigenic: generates heat, raises temperature
Stimulates increased amino acid and glucose uptake
Increases number of cellular respiration enzymes within mitochondria
Слайд 89

17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone Action of Thyroid Hormone (TH)

17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone

Action of Thyroid Hormone (TH) (continued)
Fosters

energy (ATP) production
Hepatocytes stimulated to increase blood glucose
TH causes increases in glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, and a decrease in glycogenesis
Adipose cells stimulated to increase blood glycerol and fatty acids
TH causes increase in lipolysis and decrease in lipogenesis
This saves glucose for the brain (glucose-sparing effect)
TH increases respiration rate
To meet additional oxygen demand
TH increases heart rate and force of contraction
Causes heart to increase receptors for epinephrine and norepinephrine
Слайд 90

17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone Negative feedback regulation of TH

17.8b Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormone

Negative feedback regulation of TH release
Increases

in TH cause decreases in its release
TH inhibits release of TRH from hypothalamus
TH inhibits release of TSH from anterior pituitary
TH causes release of growth hormone inhibiting hormone further inhibiting TSH release
Слайд 91

Regulation and Action of TH Figure 17.17

Regulation and Action of TH

Figure 17.17

Слайд 92

Clinical View: Disorders of Thyroid Hormone Secretion Hyperthyroidism Results from excessive

Clinical View: Disorders of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

Hyperthyroidism
Results from excessive production of

TH
Increased metabolic rate, weight loss, hyperactivity, heat intolerance
Caused by T4 ingestion, excessive stimulation by pituitary, or loss of feedback control in thyroid (Graves disease)
Treated by removing the thyroid (then giving hormone supplements)
Hypothyroidism
Results from decreased production of TH
Low metabolic rate, lethargy, cold intolerance, weight gain, photophobia
Caused by decreased iodine intake, loss of pituitary stimulation of thyroid, postsurgical, or immune system destruction of thyroid
Treated with thyroid hormone replacement
Слайд 93

Clinical View: Disorders of Thyroid Hormone Secretion (continued) Goiter Enlargement of

Clinical View: Disorders of Thyroid Hormone Secretion (continued)

Goiter
Enlargement of thyroid
Typically due

to insufficient dietary iodine
Lack of dietary iodine preventing thyroid from producing thyroid hormone
Once relatively common in United States, but no longer now that iodine added to table salt
Слайд 94

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol Anatomy of the adrenal glands Paired,

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol

Anatomy of the adrenal glands
Paired, pyramid-shaped endocrine

glands
Located on superior surface of each kidney
Retroperitoneal, embedded within fat and fascia
Two regions: adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

Figure 17.18a (part)

Слайд 95

Adrenal Glands

Adrenal Glands

Слайд 96

Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands

Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands

Слайд 97

Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands Cortex and Medulla Capsule Cortex Medulla

Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands Cortex and Medulla

Capsule

Cortex

Medulla

Слайд 98

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol Anatomy of the adrenal glands (continued)

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol

Anatomy of the adrenal glands (continued)
Adrenal medulla
Forms

inner core of each adrenal gland
Red-brown color due to extensive blood vessels
Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine with sympathetic stimulation
Adrenal cortex
Synthesizes more than 25 corticosteroids
Yellow color due to lipids within cells
Three regions producing different steroid hormones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and the inner zona reticularis
Слайд 99

Adrenal Glands Figure 17.18b,c

Adrenal Glands

Figure 17.18b,c

Слайд 100

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol Hormones of the adrenal cortex Mineralocorticoids:

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol

Hormones of the adrenal cortex
Mineralocorticoids: hormones that

regulate electrolyte levels
Made in zona glomerulosa: thin, outer cortical layer
Aldosterone fosters Na+ retention and K+ secretion
Glucocorticoids: hormones that regulate blood sugar
Made in zona fasciculata: larger, middle cortical layer
Cortisol increases blood sugar
Gonadocorticoids: sex hormones
Made in zona reticularis: thin, inner cortical layer
Androgens are male sex hormones made by adrenals
Converted to estrogen in females
Amount of androgen produced by adrenals is less than amount from testes
Слайд 101

Suprarenal Gland Low Magnification Capsule of suprarenal gland Suprarenal cortex Suprarenal

Suprarenal Gland Low Magnification

Capsule of suprarenal gland

Suprarenal cortex

Suprarenal medulla

Medullary veins

Zona glomerulosa

Zona fasciculata

Zona

reticularis
Слайд 102

Suprarenal Gland Medium Magnification Suprarenal capsule Suprarenal cortex Suprarenal medulla Medullary

Suprarenal Gland Medium Magnification

Suprarenal capsule

Suprarenal cortex

Suprarenal medulla

Medullary veins

Zona glomerulosa

Zona fasciculata

Zona reticularis

Слайд 103

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol Action of cortisol Cortisol and corticosterone

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol

Action of cortisol
Cortisol and corticosterone increase nutrient

levels in blood
To resist stress and repair injured tissue
Release regulated by hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
Stress, late stages of sleep, and low levels of cortisol stimulate hypothalamus to release CRH
CRH stimulates anterior pituitary to release ACTH
ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol and corticosterone
Cortisol travels through blood attached to carrier proteins
Small amounts of cortisol dissociate from carrier and leave bloodstream
Слайд 104

Regulation and Action of Cortisol Hormone Figure 17.19

Regulation and Action of Cortisol Hormone

Figure 17.19

Слайд 105

Variables That Influence Levels of Cortisol Figure 17.20

Variables That Influence Levels of Cortisol

Figure 17.20

Слайд 106

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol Action of cortisol (continued) Cortisol diffuses

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol

Action of cortisol (continued)
Cortisol diffuses through target

cell’s membrane and binds to intracellular receptor
Hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and activates genes
Cortisol causes target cells to increase blood nutrient levels
Liver cells increase glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis; decrease glycogenesis
Adipose cells increase lipolysis and decrease lipogenesis
Many body cells break down proteins to amino acids
Liver cells use the amino acids for gluconeogenesis
Most cells decrease their glucose uptake, sparing it for brain
Слайд 107

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol Cortisol levels are regulated by negative

17.8c Adrenal Glands and Cortisol

Cortisol levels are regulated by negative feedback
Cortisol

inhibits release of CRH from hypothalamus and ACTH from anterior pituitary
Corticosterone is used as a treatment for inflammation
It inhibits inflammatory agents and suppresses immune system
At high doses it has side effects
Increases risk of infections, cancer
Increases retention of sodium and water
Inhibits connective tissue repair
Слайд 108

Clinical View: Disorders in Adrenal Cortex Hormone Secretion Cushing syndrome Chronic

Clinical View: Disorders in Adrenal Cortex Hormone Secretion

Cushing syndrome
Chronic exposure to

excessive glucocorticoid hormones in people taking corticosteroids for therapy
Some cases when adrenal gland produces too much hormone
Obesity, hypertension, excess hair growth, kidney stones, and menstrual irregularities
Addison disease
Form of adrenal insufficiency
Develops when adrenal glands fail
Chronic shortage of glucocorticoids and sometimes mineralocorticoids
May develop from lack of ACTH or lack of response to ACTH
Weight loss, fatigue and weakness, hypotension, and skin darkening
Therapy of oral corticosteroids
Слайд 109

Clinical View: Disorders in Adrenal Cortex Hormone Secretion (continued) Adrenogenital syndrome

Clinical View: Disorders in Adrenal Cortex Hormone Secretion (continued)

Adrenogenital syndrome (congenital

adrenal hyperplasia)
Begins in embryo or fetus
Inability to synthesize corticosteroids leads to overproduction of ACTH
High ACTH causes increased size of adrenal gland and production of hormones with testosterone-like effects
Masculinizes newborn
Слайд 110

Clinical View: Stress Response Stressors elicit a stress response Hypothalamus initiates

Clinical View: Stress Response

Stressors elicit a stress response
Hypothalamus initiates neuroendocrine response
Three

stages
Alarm reaction
Initial response involving sympathetic nervous system activation, epinephrine, norepinephrine
Stage of resistance
After depletion of glycogen stores, adrenal secretes cortisol to raise blood sugar and help meet energy demands
Stage of exhaustion
After weeks or months, depletion of fat stores results in protein breakdown for energy leading to weakening of the body and illness
Слайд 111

What did you learn? At what time of day are growth

What did you learn?

At what time of day are growth hormone

levels highest?
What is the function of thyroid follicular cells?
What is the primary mineralocorticoid and what are its specific effects?
Слайд 112

17.9 Pancreatic Hormones Describe the gross anatomy and cellular structure of

17.9 Pancreatic Hormones
Describe the gross anatomy and cellular structure of the

pancreas.
Identify the primary types of pancreatic islet cells and the hormones they produce.
Describe the action of insulin in lowering blood glucose concentration.
Explain the action of glucagon in raising blood glucose concentration.

Learning Objectives:

Слайд 113

17.9a Anatomy of the Pancreas Sits behind stomach, between duodenum and

17.9a Anatomy of the Pancreas

Sits behind stomach, between duodenum and spleen
Pancreas

has endocrine and exocrine functions
Acini cells generate exocrine secretions for digestion
They make up vast majority of pancreas
Pancreatic islets (of Langerhans) contain clusters of endocrine cells
Alpha cells secrete glucagon
Beta cells secrete insulin
Delta cells and F cells also present
Слайд 114

Pancreas Figure 17.21

Pancreas

Figure 17.21

Слайд 115

Pancreas

Pancreas

Слайд 116

Pancreas Head Neck Body Tail Pancreas

Pancreas

Head

Neck

Body

Tail

Pancreas

Слайд 117

Pancreas Head Neck Body Tail

Pancreas

Head

Neck

Body

Tail

Слайд 118

Pancreas Low Magnification Endocrine pancreas Exocrine pancreas (acini)

Pancreas Low Magnification

Endocrine pancreas

Exocrine pancreas
(acini)

Слайд 119

Pancreas Medium Magnification Islet of Langerhans Exocrine pancreas Arteriole Venule Intralobular ducts

Pancreas Medium Magnification

Islet of Langerhans

Exocrine pancreas

Arteriole

Venule

Intralobular ducts

Слайд 120

Pancreas High Magnification Islet of Langerhans Exocrine pancreas Capillaries in pancreatic islet of Langerhans

Pancreas High Magnification

Islet of Langerhans

Exocrine pancreas

Capillaries in pancreatic islet of Langerhans

Слайд 121

Pancreas—Alpha Cells Pancreatic Islet of Langerhans Exocrine pancreas Alpha cells

Pancreas—Alpha Cells

Pancreatic Islet of Langerhans

Exocrine pancreas

Alpha cells

Слайд 122

Pancreas—Beta Cells Islet of Langerhans Exocrine pancreas Beta cells

Pancreas—Beta Cells

Islet of Langerhans

Exocrine pancreas

Beta cells

Слайд 123

17.9b Effects of Pancreatic Hormones Pancreatic hormones help maintain blood glucose

17.9b Effects of Pancreatic Hormones

Pancreatic hormones help maintain blood glucose
Normal range

is 70 to 110 mg of glucose/deciliter
High levels damage blood vessels and kidneys
Low levels cause lethargy, mental and physical impairment, death
Insulin lowers blood glucose
After food intake, beta cells detect rise in blood glucose and respond by secreting insulin
Insulin travels through blood and randomly leaves bloodstream to encounter target cells
Insulin binds to receptors and initiates 2nd messenger systems
Once blood glucose falls, beta cells stop secreting insulin
Слайд 124

17.9b Effects of Pancreatic Hormones How insulin lowers blood glucose Hepatocytes

17.9b Effects of Pancreatic Hormones

How insulin lowers blood glucose
Hepatocytes remove glucose

from blood; store it as glycogen
Glycogenesis stimulated; glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis inhibited
Adipose cells decrease fatty acid levels in blood; store fat
Lipogenesis stimulated and lipolysis inhibited
Most body cells increase nutrient uptake in response to insulin
Increased amino acid uptake, protein synthesis (especially in muscle)
Increased glucose uptake by incorporating more glucose transport proteins into plasma membrane
With less alternate fuels available (e.g., less fatty acids) more body cells use glucose
Some cells do not require insulin to take in glucose
Including: neurons, kidney cells, hepatocytes, red blood cells
Слайд 125

Regulation and Action of Insulin Figure 17.22

Regulation and Action of Insulin

Figure 17.22

Слайд 126

Clinical View: Conditions Resulting in Abnormal Glucose Levels Diabetes mellitus Inadequate

Clinical View: Conditions Resulting in Abnormal Glucose Levels

Diabetes mellitus
Inadequate uptake of

glucose from blood
Chronically elevated glucose, blood vessels damaged
Leading cause of retinal blindness, kidney failure, and nontraumatic amputations in the United States
Associated with increased heart disease and stroke
Type 1 diabetes
Absent or diminished release of insulin by pancreas
Tends to occur in children and younger individuals
May have autoimmune component
Requires daily injections of insulin
Слайд 127

Clinical View: Conditions Resulting in Abnormal Glucose Levels (continued) Type 2

Clinical View: Conditions Resulting in Abnormal Glucose Levels (continued)

Type 2 diabetes
From

decreased insulin release or insulin effectiveness
Obesity major cause in development
Tends to occur in older individuals, but can occur in young adults
Treatment with diet, exercise, and medications
Gestational diabetes
Seen in some pregnant women
If untreated, causes risk to fetus and increases delivery complications
Increases chance of later developing type 2 diabetes
Слайд 128

Clinical View: Conditions Resulting in Abnormal Glucose Levels (continued) Hypoglycemia Glucose

Clinical View: Conditions Resulting in Abnormal Glucose Levels (continued)

Hypoglycemia
Glucose levels below

60 mg/DL
Numerous causes
Insulin overdose, prolonged exercise, alcohol use, liver or kidney dysfunction
Deficiency of glucocorticoids or growth hormone, genetics
Symptoms of hunger, dizziness, confusion, sweating, and sleepiness
Glucagon given if individual unconscious and unable to eat
Слайд 129

17.9b Effects of Pancreatic Hormones Glucagon raises blood glucose Alpha cells

17.9b Effects of Pancreatic Hormones

Glucagon raises blood glucose
Alpha cells detect drop

in blood glucose and release glucagon
Glucagon acts through membrane receptors and 2nd messengers causing body cells to release stored nutrients into blood
Hepatocytes release glucose
Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis stimulated; glycogenesis inhibited
Adipose cells release fatty acids and glycerol
Lipolysis stimulated, while lipogenesis inhibited
Glucagon does not affect protein composition
Glucagon can be given by paramedics to unconscious individuals with low blood sugar
Once blood glucose rises, glucagon release is inhibited
Слайд 130

Regulation and Action of Glucagon Figure 17.23

Regulation and Action of Glucagon

Figure 17.23

Слайд 131

What did you learn? What function is served by the pancreatic

What did you learn?

What function is served by the pancreatic islets?
What

effect would a decrease in insulin levels be expected to have on blood sugar?
How is it that changes in the levels of fatty acids in the blood can affect blood sugar levels?
Слайд 132

17.10 Other Endocrine Glands Describe the general structure, location, and function

17.10 Other Endocrine Glands
Describe the general structure, location, and function of

the pineal gland.
Describe the general structure, location, and function of the parathyroid glands.
Identify and provide a description of the general function of the hormone(s) released from each of the organs discussed in this section.

Learning Objectives:

Слайд 133

17.10a Pineal Gland Pineal gland is a small unpaired body in

17.10a Pineal Gland

Pineal gland is a small unpaired body in the

epithalamus of the diencephalon
Pineal secretes melatonin at night
Causes drowsiness
Regulates circadian rhythm and has effects on mood
Melatonin influences GnRH secretion
Has poorly understood effects on reproductive physiology
Слайд 134

Pineal Gland

Pineal Gland

Слайд 135

17.10b Parathyroid Glands Parathyroid glands are small structures on the back

17.10b Parathyroid Glands

Parathyroid glands are small structures on the back of

the thyroid gland
There are between 2 and 6 of them (usually 4)
Contain chief cells and oxyphil cells
Chief (principal) cells make parathyroid hormone (PTH)
PTH increases blood calcium
Liberates it from bone, decreases its loss in urine, activates calcitriol hormone
Слайд 136

Parathyroid Glands

Parathyroid Glands

Слайд 137

Parathyroid Glands High Magnification Chief cells Oxyphil cells

Parathyroid Glands High Magnification

Chief cells

Oxyphil cells

Слайд 138

17.10c Structures with an Endocrine Function Thymus epithelial cells secrete thymic

17.10c Structures with an Endocrine Function

Thymus epithelial cells secrete thymic hormones
Located

anterior to top of heart
Grows during childhood but shrinks during adulthood
Maturation site for T-lymphocyte white blood cells
Endocrine tissue in heart atria secretes atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
ANP is a hormone that lowers blood pressure
Kidneys increase urine output and blood vessels dilate
Kidney endocrine cells release erythropoietin (EPO)
Secretion occurs in response to low blood oxygen
EPO causes increased red blood cell production
Слайд 139

17.10c Structures with an Endocrine Function Liver secretions include insulin-like growth

17.10c Structures with an Endocrine Function

Liver secretions include insulin-like growth factors

and the inactive hormone angiotensinogen
Angiotensinogen is converted to active angiotensin II by enzymes from the kidney and lung blood vessels
Angiotensin II helps raise blood pressure when it starts to fall
Causes vessel constriction, decreases urine output, stimulates thirst
Stomach secretes gastrin
Gastrin increases secretion and motility in stomach for digestion
Слайд 140

17.10c Structures with an Endocrine Function Small intestine secretes secretin and

17.10c Structures with an Endocrine Function

Small intestine secretes secretin and cholecystokinin

(CCK) into blood
Secretin stimulates secretion of bile and pancreatic juice
CCK stimulates release of bile from gall bladder
In skin cells, light converts modified cholesterol to vitamin D3, which is then released into blood
Vitamin D3 is converted to calcidiol by a liver enzyme
Calcidiol is converted to calcitriol by a kidney enzyme
Calcitriol is the active hormone that raises blood calcium
Stimulates Ca2+ from bone, decreases Ca2+ loss in urine, stimulates Ca2+ absorption in intestine
Слайд 141

17.10c Structures with an Endocrine Function Adipose connective tissue secretes leptin

17.10c Structures with an Endocrine Function

Adipose connective tissue secretes leptin
Leptin controls

appetite by binding to neurons in hypothalamus
Lower body fat is associated with less leptin and this stimulates appetite
Adipose has other endocrine effects
Excess adipose raises risk of cancer
Excess adipose delays male puberty
Abnormally low adipose interferes with female menstrual cycle
Слайд 142

What did you learn? What gland secretes melatonin and what is

What did you learn?

What gland secretes melatonin and what is its

effect?
What effect does PTH have on blood calcium levels?
Why have dishonest endurance athletes taken exogenous EPO?
How does sun exposure change hormone levels in the body?
Слайд 143

17.11 Aging and the Endocrine System Describe how endocrine activity changes as people age. Learning Objectives:

17.11 Aging and the Endocrine System
Describe how endocrine activity changes as

people age.

Learning Objectives:

Слайд 144

17.11 Aging and the Endocrine System Endocrine changes with aging Secretory

17.11 Aging and the Endocrine System

Endocrine changes with aging
Secretory activity wanes

with age
Reduces efficiency of endocrine system functions
Decreased levels of normal hormones
E.g., decreased levels of GH and sex hormones
Reduced GH levels leading to loss of weight and body mass in elderly
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