Theory and methodology of modern psychology:

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Theory and methodology of modern psychology: Advanced social psychology

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Advanced social psychology

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- Lectures and seminars (Anastasia Batkhina and Dmitri Dubrov).
Anastasia and Dmitri

will tell you about seminars organization.

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Course schedule

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Main Textbooks
Advanced social psychology. The state of the science” (2010). Ed.

by R. F. Baumeister, E. J. Finkel, Oxford University Press, Inc. NY.
Hogg, M.A. & Vaughan, G.M. 5th Ed. (2008) Social Psychology. London: Arnold.
Handbook of Psychology, Volume 5: Personality and Social Psychology, 2nd Edition (2012) . Irving B. Weiner (Editor-in-Chief), Howard A. Tennen & Jerry M. Suls. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. (2014). Social psychology and human nature. Third Edition. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

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Introduction to Advanced Social psychology
Lecture 1

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1. Why Study Social Psychology?
2. What is Social Psychology?
3. Social

Psychology: From Past to Present
4. Major Theoretical Perspectives of the Social psychology
5. Methodological Issues in Social Psychology

Structure

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1. Why Study Social Psychology?
Structure

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In a survey 3000 British respondents said the top five things

they could not “live without” were:
1. sunshine

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In a survey 3000 British respondents said the top five things

they could not “live without” were:
sunshine,
the Internet,

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In a survey 3000 British respondents said the top five things

they could not “live without” were:
sunshine,
the Internet,
clean drinking water

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In a survey 3000 British respondents said the top five things

they could not “live without” were:
sunshine,
the Internet,
clean drinking water
refrigerators, and…..

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In a survey 3000 British respondents said the top five things

they could not “live without” were:
sunshine,
the Internet,
clean drinking water
refrigerators, and…..
Facebook. (!)

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In a survey 3000 British respondents said the top five things

they could not “live without” were:
sunshine,
the Internet,
clean drinking water
refrigerators, and…..
Facebook. (!)
WHY?
Do you know, that Mark Zuckerberg studied Psychology and Computer Science at Harvard University?

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Humans have social needs that social networking sites like Facebook can

help meet.
We are social animals

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We are not isolated, we are social animals, constantly influenced by

our consciousness, thoughts, and feelings.
We are in the social groups and we think – what others would say? (approve or disapprove our behaviour etc.)
So, we are affected by others

We are social animals

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Social psychology is the scientific study of how people affect and

are affected by others.
Social psychology, can help you understand basic principles of social influence, as well as many other principles of social behavior.

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1. Why Study Social Psychology?
2. What is Social Psychology?
Structure

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Social psychology has been defined as the scientific investigation of how

the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others (G. W. Allport, 1954, p. 5).

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How and what do people think of one another?
How and how

much, do people influence one another?
What shapes the way we relate to one another?

Social psychological questions

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Social psychology is heavily influenced by:
Sociology
Cognitive psychology (social cognition);
Individual

psychology (social psychology and personality)
Social anthropology (cross-cultural psychology)

Social psychology and some scientific close neighbors

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Social Psychology and Sociology
How are they different?
Sociology tends to focus on

the group level.
Social psychology tends to focus on the individual level.
How do the fields intersect?
Often share the same methods and publish in the same journals.
Both can help in understanding societal and immediate factors that influence behavior.

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Social Psychology and Personality Psychology
How are they different?
Personality psychologists are interested in

differences between individuals.
Social psychologists are interested in how social factors affect most individuals.
How do the fields intersect?
They complement each other.
Do situational factors interact with individual differences?

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Social Psychology and Cognitive Psychology
How are they different?
Cognitive psychologists study mental processes overall.
Social

psychologists are interested in mental processes with respect to social information and how these processes influence social behavior.
How do the fields intersect?
Social cognition has become an important area within social psychology.

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1. Why Study Social Psychology?
2. What is Social Psychology?
3. Social

Psychology: From Past to Present

Structure

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Max Ringelmann in the 1880s
Conducted rope-pulling experiments
Men pulled alone or as

part of a group
Measured amount of effort
As group size increased, individual effort decreased
The presence of others hurt performance (i.e., social loafing)

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Norman Triplett in 1898
Noticed that cyclists who were competing performed better

than those who were not
Decided to test hypothesis that the presence of others would enhance performance
The presence of others enhanced performance (i.e., social facilitation)

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Introduction of Social Psychology (1908)
Edward Ross (sociologist)
William McDougall (psychologist)
Influences in Early

20th Century
Gordon Allport
It’s all about attitudes
Kurt Lewin
Behavior represents an interaction of the person with the situation

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Lewin, K. Field theory in
social science:
Selected theoretical papers.
New

York: Harper & Row, 1951.

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Who had the most dramatic impact on social psychology?
Quite possibly -

Adolf Hitler
Hitler and WWII
a. The Exodus of European Psychologists
Fleeing Nazi Occupied Europe
- brings a Gestalt Perspective to the American
Psychology
- Kurt Lewin, Fritz Heider, Bob Zajonc,
Solomon Asche

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b. The Nazi phenomenon and Holocaust
begged explanation.
- The Authoritarian Personality (Adorno)
-

Conformity (Asche)
- Obedience (Milgram)
- Prejudice Reduction (Sherif)
- Aggression (Bandura)

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1. Why Study Social Psychology?
2. What is Social Psychology?
3. Social

Psychology: From Past to Present
4. Major Theoretical Perspectives of the Social psychology

Structure

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Major Theoretical Perspectives
Social Cognitive
Motivational
Social Learning
Sociocultural
Evolutionary

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1. Social Cognitive Theories and Motivational Theories
Social Cognitive:
A theoretical viewpoint

that focuses on the mental processes involved in paying attention to, interpreting, and remembering social experiences
Motivational Theories:
Focuses on the individual’s own needs and motives.

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Early social psychology emphasized motivation over cognition, although that has been

reversed considerably in recent decades.
One of the first big ideas in modern social psychology was that people are motivated to seek consistency. This was a dominant view in the late 1950s and the 1960s and has remained influential ever since.

1.1 The Consistency Seeker

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It is a view that emphasizes motivations about cognition.
Consistency is

something cognitive, but the emphasis in early years was in people’s motivated strivings to attain and sustain it. Even the theory of cognitive dissonance, which was for a time the most influential theory in social psychology, was really a drive (motivation) theory and not very cognitive by modern standards.
Cognitive dissonance theory
Cognitive balance theory

1.1 The Consistency Seeker

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The Self-Esteem Maximizer seeks above all to avoid losing self-esteem.
At

first it was related to dissonance theory, several versions of which saw dissonance motivation as centered around maintaining a favorable view of self, because being inconsistent made you look bad.

1.2. The Self-Esteem Maximizer

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Anything that depicts the self in a bad light and could

potentially call for a downward revision in your self-appraisal is seen as threatening. People may avoid certain situations or persons, rationalize events, and even provide themselves with excuses for potential failure, all to prevent the loss of self-esteem.
Self-awareness theory
The theory of self-comparison
Self-serving bias (a pattern in which people claim credit for success but deny blame for failure) etc.

1.2. The Self-Esteem Maximizer

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The simple assumption behind this theory is that it is important

and helpful for people to understand their worlds, and so they constantly go about trying to collect information.
Understanding the social environment is considerably more challenging than understanding the physical environment, and so humans spend much of their time trying to gain information about it. This includes learning and making inferences about other people as well as about social situations and social structures.

1.3. The Information Seeker

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The central assumption of the Information Seeker approach was that whenever

something happens (you pass a test, get rejected by a romantic partner, meet someone new, have an argument) you respond by trying to determine what it means and what its implications are.
Attribution theory, which was one of the dominant theories in social psychology from the late 1960s into the 1980s, took this approach.

1.3. The Information Seeker

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The simple view of humans as Information Seekers gave way in

the 1970s to the realization that information was not simply taken in but rather was subjected to fairly extensive processing. The so-called Cognitive Revolution emerged in social psychology during that decade and became the dominant view during the next one (the 1980s). The image of people as Information Processors was essentially an updated, more sophisticated version of seeing them as Information Seekers.

1.4. The Information Processor

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The most extensive examination of these issues was provided by Anderson’s

research on his information integration model.
Anderson (1978) believed that people simply averaged separate items of information, and he conducted a vast program of research to demonstrate this for a variety of different kinds of information, including that underlying impression judgments.

1.4. The Information Processor

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A priority in research and publication in early social psychology, greatly

compounded by the Cognitive Revolution, created a variation of the Information Processor, redefining it as someone who processes information badly.
The priority was that social psychologists searched for counterintuitive findings that went against what most people assumed and expected. Because research on social cognition that showed that people reached the right conclusion was often not very informative about the inner processes involved, a premium was placed on showing instances in which people came to false conclusions or made other errors. Collected together, these created an image of the human being as a Foolish Mistake Maker.

1.5. The Foolish Mistake Maker

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For example, one well-established principle goes by the name of the

Cognitive Miser (Taylor, 1981). The Cognitive Miser is perhaps one aspect of the Foolish Mistake Maker. The essence of being a Cognitive Miser is based on the hypothesis that because people do not like to exert mental effort, they do as little as possible.

1.5. The Foolish Mistake Maker

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Human brain consumes a relatively large proportion of human energy (compared

to other animals).
Even so, most of this energy is used unconsciously (because this is more efficient).
Conscious energy is limited and needs to be spend wisely.
There is an ample evidence that stipulated: when people’s capacity for thinking is already preoccupied, they take even more shortcuts to reduce further need for thought.

“Cognitive Miser”

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The view that people are pretty much all the same can

be termed the “Nondifferent Individual.”
The term was chosen to contrast it with the emphasis in personality psychology on individual differences. The underlying theory is that behavior is primarily a response to situations (hence the alternate title of “Situational Responder”).
How people think, feel, and act is a direct result of situational pressures and influences.

1.6. The Nondifferent Individual, or the Situational Responder

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One of the guiding texts for this movement was Mischel’s (1968)

Personality and Assessment, which famously concluded that personality traits typically predict only about 10% of behavior. Social psychologists helpfully stepped into that apparent gap by suggesting that their research on situational causes could account for the other 90%.
Examples: most of experiments in social psychology.

1.6. The Nondifferent Individual, or the Situational Responder

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2. Social Learning Theories
It’s central idea is that a person’s

current behavior is determined by prior experience.
A theoretical viewpoint that focuses on past learning experiences as determinants of a person’s social behaviors
Aggression studies (not nature, but social learning)

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3. Sociocultural Theories
Focuses on how people’s diverse social backgrounds influence their

thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
A theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in influences from larger social groups
E.g., norms within cultural groups, social class differences, nationality/ethnicity, fads

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4. Evolutionary Social Psychology Theories Applies to the principles of evolution

and natural selection to the understanding of behavior and human social life.
A theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in the physical and psychological predispositions that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce

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Evolutionary Social Psychology Theories
What drives social behavior?
Genetic predispositions inherited from our

ancestors that promoted their survival and reproduction, such as:
The tendency to automatically recognize an angry face
The tendency for mothers to feel protective of their children
E.g. prosocial behaviour

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1. Why Study Social Psychology?
2. What is Social Psychology?
3. Social

Psychology: From Past to Present
4. Major Theoretical Perspectives of the Social psychology
5. Methodological Issues in Social Psychology

Structure

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Scientific Description and Explanation
Social Psychology, like any science, involves:
Description – careful

and reliable observation
Explanation – development of theories that connect and organize observations

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The study of social behavior
Descriptive methods involve attempts to measure or

record behaviors, thoughts or feelings in their natural state.
Experimental methods involve attempts to manipulate social processes by varying some aspect of the situation.

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Descriptive Methods
Social psychologists use five major types of descriptive methods
Naturalistic Observation
Case

Studies
Archives
Surveys
Psychological Tests

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r = .95
Correlation:

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r = -.95
Low
High
Low
High
Correlation:

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r = .00
Correlation:

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Correlation and causation

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Experiments
Independent variable – the variable manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent variable – the variable

measured by the experimenter

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THE PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN

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Introduction
Putnam (1993) defined social capital as “those features of social organisation,

such as trust, norms and networks that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions”.

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Introduction
Social capital depends on many contextual factors (Yamagishi et. al, 1998

Fukuyama, 2001; Alesina and La Ferrara, 2002), such as:
confidence in the fairness of justice system (positive factor),
the possibility of getting higher education (positive factor),
protection of property rights and public safety (positive factor),
religious freedom (except religious sects) (positive factor),
excessive state control (negative factor),
the high ethnic diversity of the society (unclear factor).

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Introduction
According to Putnam (2009, p. 3), ethnic diversity destroys social capital,

in particular, by reducing social trust and volunteer activity of citizens.
However, empirical research and a deeper understanding of this issue show that not in all countries, the relationship between ethnic diversity and social capital fit into the framework of the Putnam’s hypothesis (Gesthuizen, 2009; Hooghe et al. 2006).

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The purpose of this study is to test the effects of

ethnic diversity on social capital in the Russian context.
We carried out a survey during the summer of 2012.
The Russian Federation was consisted of 8 Federal districts at that time. These districts included 83 federal administrative units.
We conducted our research in 2 of 8 Districts and in 25 of 83 administrative units.
We organized our survey in two regions of Russia with the highest level of ethnic diversity.

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2012 survey area
(CFD)
2012 survey area (NCFD)

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Bridging & Bonding social capital
Bridging social capital implies social linkages that

cut across diverse groups;
Bonding social capital refers to solidarity within close groups such as family and close friends (Jang & Dworkin, 2014).
In our case, as the Bridging social capital we considered generalized trust (Svendsen & Svendsen, 2010) and social norms (Campbell & Putnam, 2011). We will consider ethnic tolerance as an indicator of social norms in our study in multicultural society
As a Bonding social capital we considered informal networks (participation in activities in various organizations) and formal networks (number of friends) (Zhang, et. al. 2011, Eklinder-Frick, Eriksson & Hallén, 2011; Murayama, et. al. 2013).

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Sample
The total sample included 2,061 respondents. We interviewed representative samples of

1,024 respondents from the Central Federal District of Russia (CFD), including Moscow, and 1,034 respondents from the North Caucasian Federal District (NCFD).
The sample was representative for these two regions. The median age of the respondents was 39 years old, on average 38.8 years, the standard deviation was 12.6 years.

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Measures
Bridging social capital
Below we have the scale statements of measurements

that we used to evaluate parameters of bridging social capital. While answering it was necessary for the respondents to give answers using a 5-point scale.
1. Level of general trust. We evaluated social trust using 2 statements from different international surveys: Most people can be trusted; Most people always act honestly (Putnam, 2000, p. 291);
2. Ethnic tolerance. We used the following two statements to evaluate ethnic tolerance: If people of different nationalities live near each other it makes life better; I don’t mind living among people of different nationalities (Onyx & Bullen, 2000).

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Measures
Bonding social capital.
1. The size of formal networks: membership in organizations

(Yang, 2007; Beilmann & Realo, 2012; Häuberer, 2011). We measured the formal network of organizational membership of the respondent by asking about the number of memberships in political parties, trade unions, professional association, church, religious organizations, sport or interest organizations, civic associations, non-government public organizations (cf. Häuberer, 2011).
2. The size of informal networks: friends (Häuberer, 2011; Gaag, 2005; Verhaeghe & Tampubolon, 2012). We measured the informal network of the respondent’s friends by asking about his or her number of friends in the workplace, in the neighborhood and other friends.

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Ethnic Diversity Index
Based on the last population census (2010), we calculated

the Ethnic Diversity Index - EDI (Riazantsev et. al., 2013).
Index value may range from 0 (no diversity, ethnically homogenous region) to 100 (complete diversity, ethnically diverse region). The value ‘0’ means that only one ethnic group is presented in the region, whereas the index point ‘100’ can be interpreted as if two individuals, chosen at random, have zero probability to be of the same ethnicity.

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Ethnic Diversity Index
Based on the last population census (2010), we calculated

the Ethnic Diversity Index - EDI (Riazantsev et. al., 2013). This index was calculated by several stages using special formula
Index value may range from 0 (no diversity, ethnically homogenous region) to 100 (complete diversity, ethnically diverse region). The value ‘0’ means that only one ethnic group is presented in the region, whereas the index point ‘100’ can be interpreted as if two individuals, chosen at random, have zero probability to be of the same ethnicity.

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Regional level:
Between
Methodology:
the study design
Respondent level:
Within

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Ethnic diversity index for 25 regions of Russia in which the

survey was organized

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Regional level:
Between
The impact of ethnic diversity on bridging social capital
Respondent level:
Within

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Regional level:
Between
The impact of ethnic diversity on bonding social capital
Respondent level:
Within

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Conclusion
1) Ethnic diversity of the Russia’s regions is either a neutral

or positive factor relating to social capital of these regions. This result is true both for bridging social capital and bonding social capital.
2) Bridging social capital of the considered regions of Russia does not suffer from their ethnic diversity, although the negative effects of ethnic diversity on social capital are predicted in the previous studies. We found that ethnic diversity does not have a statistically significant effect on generalized trust and have a positive effect on ethnic tolerance.

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Conclusion
3) The influence of ethnic diversity on various components of bonding

social capital is different. We found a negative, but weak and statistically insignificant effect of ethnic diversity on the involvement of citizen's formal network. However, we found a strong positive effect of ethnic diversity on the number of friends (informal networks).
4) The above mentioned Putnam’s hypothesis, explain well the relationship between ethnic diversity and social capital in conditions where historical and cultural ties between people are weak. Ethnic diversity will not reduce social capital in the situation when ethnic groups living on the same territory, have the same opportunities, common history, cultural interexchange and the boundaries between these cultures are not an obstacle for interethnic relationships.

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Theory and methodology of modern psychology:

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