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- 2. Why do people need emotions?
- 3. Should you be emotional to become an actor? Do you need to understand other people emotions
- 5. Is it easy for you to show emotions? Do other people guess quickly what emotions you
- 7. How many emotions are there?
- 8. Emotions rule so much of our lives. Writers and poets seem capable of coming up multitude
- 9. If someone asked you to identify how many emotions there actually are, what would you guess?
- 10. More recently, psychologists have made a number of attempts to categorize and identify the exact number
- 13. Other researchers suggest that there are around six or seven basic emotions that are experienced in
- 16. More recently, researchers asked participants to identify emotions based on the expressions of a realistic model.
- 17. "What our research shows is that not all facial muscles appear simultaneously during facial expressions, but
- 18. It is only later as the emotion is more fully expressed that the differences between the
- 19. While we might be able to identify such broad emotions, Eckman's research has revealed that the
- 21. About four thousand years ago, somewhere in the Middle East — we don’t know where or
- 22. Long before written symbols, even before spoken language, our ancestors communicated by gesture. Even now, a
- 23. A modern champion of the same idea is Paul Ekman, the American psychologist. Ekman categorised a
- 24. About 10 years ago I was walking down the central corridor in my lab at Princeton
- 25. Our experiments focused on a specific set of areas in the brains of humans and monkeys.
- 26. Other neurons scoped out the space near other parts of the body. It was as though
- 27. When we zapped a cluster of neurons that protected the left cheek, for example, a lot
- 28. After many scientific papers, we thought we had wrapped up an important project on sensory-guided movement.
- 30. Why is a smile so nice? Who do you know who has the nicest smile? What’s
- 31. As it turned out, we were not the first to seek connections between defensive movements and
- 32. As soon as the lion crosses that border, the zebra casually moves away and reinstates the
- 33. Personal space is small in Japan and large in Australia. Put a Japanese man and an
- 34. Yet Hediger and Hall had arrived at a profound insight. The same mechanism that we use
- 35. Yet smiles can also be about submission. People in subservient positions smile an awful lot around
- 36. But by focusing on the teeth, I think they miss a great deal. The display really
- 37. The ears flap back against the skull, protecting them from injury. The head pulls down and
- 38. That kind of information is very useful to members of a social group. Monkey B can
- 39. Then again, nature is often an arms race. If Monkey B can glean useful information by
- 40. Veld – степь nonchalant - беспечный Ensue – следовать Scaffold – строительные леса Grid – сетка
- 42. People have been remarking on the spooky similarity between smiles, laughter, and crying for a long
- 43. The psychologist Marina Ross compared the noises made by different species of ape and found that
- 44. Let’s try another just-so story and see how far it gets us. Imagine two young apes
- 45. What is the effect? Once again, those bubble-wrap neurons that protect the body crackle into high
- 46. Evolution should favour apes that feel rewarded when they manage to get a touché signal out
- 47. This all sounds quite sweet, but I should note that there’s a dark implication to this
- 48. For now, though, tickling is only the beginning of the story of laughter. If the ‘touché’
- 49. Shaming or mocking laughter could have emerged in a similar way. Imagine a small group of
- 50. Last but not least
- 51. Why do people cry? What makes you cry? Do you think it is silly when people
- 52. conundrum – головоломка Solicit – умолять copious – обильный Buttress – опора Enticing – заманчивый Flaunt
- 53. The conundrum of crying is that it looks a lot like laughing and smiling, yet it
- 54. After all, classic signs of crying might also include squinting, lifting the upper lip, bunching the
- 55. As Jane Goodall discovered in the 1960s, and many others have observed since then, chimps also
- 56. My best guess, strange as it might sound, is that our ancestors were in the habit
- 57. In any event, the entire behavioural display that we call crying – the tear production, the
- 58. Over time, perhaps, it becomes a little more stylised. But it still seems quite recognisable. Other
- 59. One answer is that those defensive reactions are not monolithic. They represent a large and complicated
- 60. Still, to get a real sense of this idea’s explanatory power, we need to look at
- 61. And why should so many of our social signals have emerged from something as seemingly unpromising
- 62. Emotional intelligence (EI) or emotional quotient (EQ) is the ability of individuals to recognize their own
- 63. How emotionally intelligent are you? Is it easy for you to see what emotions other people
- 87. Where can being emotional help you? What are the most emotional jobs that you know? Would
- 89. Скачать презентацию
Why do people need emotions?
Why do people need emotions?
Should you be emotional to become an actor?
Do you need to
Should you be emotional to become an actor?
Do you need to
Is it easy for you to show emotions?
Do other people
Is it easy for you to show emotions?
Do other people
How many emotions are there?
How many emotions are there?
Emotions rule so much of our lives. Writers and poets seem
Emotions rule so much of our lives. Writers and poets seem
***
Psychologist Robert Plutchick suggested that more than 90 different definitions of the term "emotion" have been put forth by psychologists. Compounding this difficulty is the fact that emotions are often so complex, varied, and internal. They tend to be deeply personal and even confusing at times. The fact that emotions are frequently mixed or that we are capable of experiencing more than one emotion at a time makes pinning down the exact nature and number of emotions that much more challenging.
If someone asked you to identify how many emotions there actually
If someone asked you to identify how many emotions there actually
***
In his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Charles Darwin suggested that the ability to express emotion through the face had evolutionary advantages. He also suggested that many of these emotional expressions were universal.
More recently, psychologists have made a number of attempts to categorize
More recently, psychologists have made a number of attempts to categorize
***
One of the most prominent of these theories is Robert Plutchik's wheel of emotions which identifies eight basic emotions - Joy, Sadness, Trust, Disgust, Fear, Anger, Surprise, and Anticipation. The wheel of emotion is likened to the color wheel in which the primary colors combine to form the secondary and complementary colors. These basic emotions then mix and combine to form a variety of feelings. For example, anticipation plus joy might combine to form optimism.
Other researchers suggest that there are around six or seven basic
Other researchers suggest that there are around six or seven basic
Eckman discovered that there were six facial expressions universal to people all over the world. These original six emotions he identified were Happiness, Sadness, Surprise, Fear, Anger, and Disgust. He later went on to add a seventh emotion - Contempt.
More recently, researchers asked participants to identify emotions based on the
More recently, researchers asked participants to identify emotions based on the
***
Similarly, disgust and anger involve the exact same muscles, so they suggest that they represent variations of just one emotion. The researchers suggest that instead of six basic emotions, there are just four: happiness, sadness, anger, and fear. The more complex variations of emotions, they argue, have evolved from these foundational building blocks over the millennia.
"What our research shows is that not all facial muscles appear
"What our research shows is that not all facial muscles appear
***
Yet most of us would immediately argue that fear and surprise are distinct and separate emotions, as are anger and disgust. However, the researchers note that when the expression is first displayed, the muscles same muscles are engaged for fear and surprise. This distinction between fear/surprise and anger/disgust, they believe, is socially based.
It is only later as the emotion is more fully expressed
It is only later as the emotion is more fully expressed
***
So does this really mean that there are just four emotions? Certainly not. The research conducted by Dr. Rachael Jack and her colleague's suggests that there are four irreducible emotions, but this certainly does not mean that people are only capable of experiencing four emotional states. "Nobody in their right mind would say there are only four emotions," Jack clarified in an interview with Science Monitor. "That simply isn't true. Human beings have incredibly complex emotions."
While we might be able to identify such broad emotions, Eckman's
While we might be able to identify such broad emotions, Eckman's
About four thousand years ago, somewhere in the Middle East —
About four thousand years ago, somewhere in the Middle East —
***
Over thousands of years, that ox-head icon gradually changed as it found its way into many different abjads and alphabets. It became more angular, then rotated to its side. Finally it turned upside down entirely, so that it was resting on its horns. Today it no longer represents an ox head or even a consonant. We know it as the capital letter A. The moral of this story is that symbols evolve.
Long before written symbols, even before spoken language, our ancestors communicated
Long before written symbols, even before spoken language, our ancestors communicated
***
One of the first scientists to think about these questions was Charles Darwin. In his 1872 book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Darwin observed that all people express their feelings in more or less the same ways. He argued that we probably evolved these gestures from precursor actions in ancestral animals.
A modern champion of the same idea is Paul Ekman, the
A modern champion of the same idea is Paul Ekman, the
Our emotional expressions seem to be inborn, in other words: they are part of our evolutionary heritage. And yet their etymology, if I can put it that way, remains a mystery. Can we trace these social signals back to their evolutionary root, to some original behaviour of our ancestors? To explain them fully, we would have to follow the trail back until we left the symbolic realm altogether, until we came face to face with something that had nothing to do with communication. We would have to find the ox head in the letter A. I think we can do that.
About 10 years ago I was walking down the central corridor
About 10 years ago I was walking down the central corridor
The lab was a hazardous place in those days. We were studying how the brain monitors a safety zone around the body and controls the ducking, cringing, squinting actions that protect us from impact. Whacking people from behind was not part of a formal experiment, but it was endlessly entertaining and, in its own way, revealing.
Our experiments focused on a specific set of areas in the
Our experiments focused on a specific set of areas in the
***
A typical neuron might become active, clicking like a Geiger counter when an object loomed towards the left cheek. The same neuron would respond to a touch on the left cheek, or to a sound made near it. When we ran tests in the dark, the neuron would become furiously active if the head moved in a way to take the left cheek towards the remembered location of an object: the neuron was ‘warning’ the rest of the brain that a collision was about to occur at a particular spot on the body.
Other neurons scoped out the space near other parts of the
Other neurons scoped out the space near other parts of the
***
Without that mechanism, you couldn’t brush an insect off your skin, duck from an impending impact nor fend off an attack. You couldn’t even walk through a doorway without bashing your shoulder. The bubble-wrap neurons did more than monitor. They also fed directly into a set of reflexes. When they were subtly active they biased movement away from nearby objects. When they were highly active, such as when we gave them some vigorous electrical stimulation, the result was a rapid and complete defensive movement.
When we zapped a cluster of neurons that protected the left
When we zapped a cluster of neurons that protected the left
***
It was clear that we had tapped into a system that controls one of the oldest and most important behavioural repertoires. Objects loom towards, or brush against, the skin, and a coordinated reaction protects the threatened part of the body. A gentle stimulus will evoke a subtle avoidance. Strong stimuli trigger a full-blown defensive flinch. Without that mechanism, you couldn’t brush an insect off your skin, duck from an impending impact nor fend off an attack. You couldn’t even walk through a doorway without bashing your shoulder
After many scientific papers, we thought we had wrapped up an
After many scientific papers, we thought we had wrapped up an
***
When you puff air on a monkey’s face, why is its expression so uncannily like a human smile? Why does laughter involve the same components as a defensive stance? For a while this lurking similarity nagged at us. A deeper relationship must be hiding in the data.
Why is a smile so nice?
Who do you know who has
Who do you know who has
What things always make you smile?
What difference does it make when sales staff smile at you in stores, train stations, etc?
What memories from your past always put a smile on your face?
What made you smile today?
As it turned out, we were not the first to seek
As it turned out, we were not the first to seek
***
On his expeditions to Africa to capture specimens, Hediger noticed a consistent pattern among the prey animals on the veld. A zebra, for example, does not simply run at the sight of a lion. Instead, it seems to project an invisible perimeter about itself. As long as the lion is outside the perimeter, the zebra is nonchalant.
As soon as the lion crosses that border, the zebra casually
As soon as the lion crosses that border, the zebra casually
***
In the 1960s, the American psychologist Edward Hall adapted the same idea to human behaviour. Hall pointed out that each person has a protected zone two or three feet wide, swelling around the head and narrowing towards the feet. This zone is not fixed in size: if you’re nervous, it grows; if you’re relaxed, it shrinks. It also depends on your cultural upbringing.
Personal space is small in Japan and large in Australia. Put
Personal space is small in Japan and large in Australia. Put
***
Personal space and flight zone almost certainly depend on the bubble-wrap neurons my colleagues and I studied in the lab. The brain is a geometrician: it computes spatial bubbles, zones and perimeters, and it deploys defensive manoeuvres to protect those spaces. This mechanism is necessary for survival.
Yet Hediger and Hall had arrived at a profound insight. The
Yet Hediger and Hall had arrived at a profound insight. The
***
A smile is a peculiar thing. The upper lip lifts to expose the teeth. The cheeks bunch upward. The skin around the eyes crinkles. The 19th-century neurologist Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand Duchenne noticed that a cold, faked smile was often limited to the mouth, whereas a genuine, friendly one involved the eyes. That genuine smile is now called a Duchenne smile in his honour.
Yet smiles can also be about submission. People in subservient positions
Yet smiles can also be about submission. People in subservient positions
***
Most ethologists agree that smiling is evolutionarily old, and that variants of it can be seen across many kinds of primates. If you watch monkeys in a group you might see them flash each other what looks like a grimace. They are communicating non-aggression; ethologists call it a ‘silent bared teeth display’. Some theorists argue that it evolved from more or less the opposite gesture, a preparation for attack.
But by focusing on the teeth, I think they miss a
But by focusing on the teeth, I think they miss a
***
Imagine two monkeys, A and B. Monkey B steps into the personal space of Monkey A. The result? Those bubble-wrap neurons begin to crackle, triggering a classic defensive reaction. Monkey A squints, protecting his eyes. His upper lip pulls up. This does expose the teeth, but only as a side-effect: in a defensive reaction, the point of the curled lip is not to prepare for a biting attack so much as it is to bunch the facial skin upward, further padding the eyes in folds of skin.
The ears flap back against the skull, protecting them from injury.
The ears flap back against the skull, protecting them from injury.
***
Monkey B can learn a lot by watching the reaction of Monkey A. If Monkey A makes a full-blown protective response, cringe and all, it’s a pretty good sign that Monkey A is frightened. He’s uneasy. His personal space is revved up and expanded. He must view Monkey B as a threat, a social superior. On the other hand, if Monkey A reveals only a subtle response, perhaps squinting and slightly pulling back his head, it’s a good sign that Monkey A is not so frightened. He does not consider Monkey B to be a social superior or a threat.
That kind of information is very useful to members of a
That kind of information is very useful to members of a
Then again, nature is often an arms race. If Monkey B
Then again, nature is often an arms race. If Monkey B
***
In people, the smile has been pared down to little more than its facial components — the lifting of the upper lip, the upward bunching of the cheeks, the squint. These days we use it mainly to communicate a friendly lack of aggression rather than outright subservience.
Veld – степь
nonchalant - беспечный
Ensue – следовать
Scaffold – строительные леса
Grid –
Veld – степь
nonchalant - беспечный
Ensue – следовать
Scaffold – строительные леса
Grid –
Jugular – яремный
Rev up – ускорять (вращение)
People have been remarking on the spooky similarity between smiles, laughter,
People have been remarking on the spooky similarity between smiles, laughter,
Laughter is supremely irrational and crazily diverse. We laugh at clever jokes, surprising stories, the slapstick of people tripping and falling in the mud. We even laugh when we’re tickled on the ribs. According to the ethologist Jan van Hooff, chimps have something like laughter: they open their mouths and make short exhalations during play fights, or if someone tickles them. Gorillas and orangutans do the same.
The psychologist Marina Ross compared the noises made by different species
The psychologist Marina Ross compared the noises made by different species
In the past, people who study laughter have focused mainly on the sound. And yet, even more obviously than with smiles, the human laugh involves the whole body. Once again, I believe you can’t understand its origins without considering the entire package. How did the huffing sound of apes during play-fighting evolve into human laughter, with its elaborate facial expression and whole-body movements?
Let’s try another just-so story and see how far it gets
Let’s try another just-so story and see how far it gets
Suppose Ape B succeeds for a moment against Ape A. Success in a play fight means penetrating the defences of your opponent and making direct contact with a vulnerable body part. Maybe Ape B gets his fingers or biting jaws on to the stomach of Ape A
What is the effect? Once again, those bubble-wrap neurons that protect
What is the effect? Once again, those bubble-wrap neurons that protect
It is advantageous for Ape B to read the signs correctly, so that he knows he won the point. How else would he learn good moves from the play fight? And how else would he know to pull back before hurting his opponent? Ape B has an informative signal to go on: the peculiar mixture of actions coming from Ape A, the vocalisation combined with a classical defensive posture. You could think of it as a touché signal.
Evolution should favour apes that feel rewarded when they manage to
Evolution should favour apes that feel rewarded when they manage to
In this account, a complex dynamic between sender and receiver gradually evolves into a stylised human signal. The signal means, ‘You’re getting through my defences.’ A very ticklish child starts to laugh when your fingers approach her defended zones, even before you touch the skin. The laughter ramps up as you get farther into the bubble-wrap zone and reaches a maximum when you actually make contact.
This all sounds quite sweet, but I should note that there’s
This all sounds quite sweet, but I should note that there’s
What must they have been doing to each other for such frenzied protective reactions to find their way into the social signals that regulate play fights? In laughter, we find a clue to the sheer violence of our ancestors’ social world. We’ll see another, when we look at tears.
For now, though, tickling is only the beginning of the story
For now, though, tickling is only the beginning of the story
And we do use laughter in that way. We laugh at people’s jokes and cleverness as an expression of support and admiration. When we laugh at a joke, isn’t that in essence a touché signal? ‘You got me,’ it says. ‘You won a point for cleverness in a mental play fight. You faked me out and then delivered a punch line from an unexpected direction.’
Shaming or mocking laughter could have emerged in a similar way.
Shaming or mocking laughter could have emerged in a similar way.
In these ever-diversifying forms we can still see the original defensive movements, just as you can still see the horns of a bull in the letter A. Polite laughter might involve little more than the voice, perhaps with some tension around the eyes and in the cheeks. But think of those times when you and a friend can’t keep it together and tears are streaming out of your eyes. It’s sometimes called Duchenne laughter. The cheeks bunch up, the eyes squint until they almost disappear, the torso hunches, the arms pull across the torso or face. It’s an echo of the classic defensive stance.
Last but not least
Last but not least
Why do people cry?
What makes you cry?
Do you think it is
Why do people cry?
What makes you cry?
Do you think it is
When was the last time you cried and why?
Do you like making other people cry (and how)?
conundrum – головоломка
Solicit – умолять
copious – обильный
Buttress – опора
Enticing – заманчивый
Flaunt
conundrum – головоломка
Solicit – умолять
copious – обильный
Buttress – опора
Enticing – заманчивый
Flaunt
ambiguity – двусмысленность
expedient - целесообразный
The conundrum of crying is that it looks a lot like
The conundrum of crying is that it looks a lot like
And so we find the zoologist R J Andrew arguing, in the 1960s, that crying mimics a case of contaminants in the eyes. What else could have caused tears to flow, back in the mists of prehistory? The contaminants theory might have something to it if tears were all that we had to explain. But for the third time, I think we are dealing with a form of behaviour that may be better understood in the context of the whole body.
After all, classic signs of crying might also include squinting, lifting
After all, classic signs of crying might also include squinting, lifting
***
Now, as a social signal, crying has a specific use: it solicits comfort. Cry, and your friend will try to make you feel better. Yet the evolution of any social signal is presumably driven by its receiver, so it is worth our time to look at how and why primates comfort each other.
As Jane Goodall discovered in the 1960s, and many others have
As Jane Goodall discovered in the 1960s, and many others have
***
Picture a hominid ancestor beating up one of his juniors. What useful signifier would he have looked for to know that he had gone too far and that it was time to start dispensing comfort? The answer should be obvious by now: an extreme protective stance along with alarm cries. Yet crying adds something new to the familiar defensive mix. Where did the tears come from?
My best guess, strange as it might sound, is that our
My best guess, strange as it might sound, is that our
***
Thickly buttressed facial bones are first seen in fossils of Australopithecus, which appeared following our split with chimpanzees. Carrier and Morgan further argue that Australopithecus was our first ancestor whose hand was capable of making a tight fist. So, the reason we weep now may well be that our ancestors discussed their differences by hitting each other in the face. Some of us still do, I suppose.
In any event, the entire behavioural display that we call crying
In any event, the entire behavioural display that we call crying
***
It would now be in the animal’s interests to manipulate the situation and mimic an injury – exaggerating it, even – whenever it needed comfort. Thus the signal (crying) and the response (an emotional urge to offer comfort in reaction to crying) evolve in tandem. So long as both sides of the exchange keep deriving benefits, the behaviour floats free of its violent origins.
Over time, perhaps, it becomes a little more stylised. But it
Over time, perhaps, it becomes a little more stylised. But it
***
By now you might be growing a little doubtful. Sure, crying, laughing and smiling all appear similar if you look at them from a sufficiently detached point of view, but they also have important differences. It doesn’t matter that a space alien might have trouble figuring out what humans mean by all these crazy look-alike signals; we, at least, are experts at distinguishing them. And if they all came out of one behavioural set, how could they possibly have separated out enough to communicate different emotions?
One answer is that those defensive reactions are not monolithic. They
One answer is that those defensive reactions are not monolithic. They
***
If you’re shying away from another individual who is standing nearby but not within touching distance, the defensive set is more of a general protective stance, including the ducking head and facial contractions that prepare for possible impact. Subtly different reactions could have morphed into our different emotional signals, explaining both their disturbing similarities and their quirky differences.
Still, to get a real sense of this idea’s explanatory power,
Still, to get a real sense of this idea’s explanatory power,
***
Think of a model in a fashion magazine. She tilts her head to look enticing. Why? Well, the neck, with its thick layer of virtual bubble-wrap, is one of the most heavily defended parts of the body. We cringe and shrug if someone tries to touch us there, and with good reason: predators go for the jugular and the windpipe.
***
That’s why a gesture like a tilt of your head, flaunting the side of your throat where the jugular runs, sends an unconscious signal of invitation. It says: I’m letting my guard down so you can get close. In this light, the strange mixture of eroticism and fear that we find in stories of neck-biting vampires starts to make a lot more sense.
And why should so many of our social signals have emerged
And why should so many of our social signals have emerged
***
Evolution favours animals that can read and react to those signs, and it favours animals that can manipulate those signs to influence whoever is watching. We have stumbled on the defining ambiguity of human emotional life: we are always caught between authenticity and fakery, always floating in the grey area between involuntary outburst and expedient pretence.
Emotional intelligence (EI) or emotional quotient (EQ)
is the ability of
Emotional intelligence (EI) or emotional quotient (EQ)
is the ability of
How emotionally intelligent are you? Is it easy for you to
How emotionally intelligent are you? Is it easy for you to
Where can being emotional help you?
What are the most emotional jobs
Where can being emotional help you?
What are the most emotional jobs
Would you be able to handle an emotional job, or do you prefer the calmer one?